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I 


KOREA 


ITS  HISTORY,  ITS  PEOPLE,  AND 
COM  M E Pi  C E 


ANDES  HAMILTON 

F.K.G.S. 

MAJOII  HEmVERT  II.  AUSTIN 

C.M.G.,  D.S.O.,  U.E.,  ETC. 


VISCOUNT  MASVTVKE  TERAUGHI 

ms  I.Ml'KItlM.  JAl'ANESK  MAJESTY  S KESIDENT-GENEHAL 


L.  BELIXC  TETEXS 

l.ONDON  EI)I\Hri{(;FI  TOHOXTO 


. M I LLL  'I’  COM  l>  \ N ^ 

15  0ST0  N AM)  To  K V () 


COPVEIGHT,  igiO 


Bv  J.  B.  MII.LET  CO. 


THE  • PLIMPTOX  ■ PRESS 
[\V  D ■ O] 

SORWCXID  M\SS  ■ U • S • .S 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEB  PAGE 

Introduction ix 

Editorial  Note xv 

I Outline  of  History 3 

II  Land  and  Folk 15 

III  A City  of  Peace 23 

IV  Costume,  Manners,  and  Morals  ...  30 

V Education  and  Crime 47 

VI  Korean  Industries 55 

VII  Korean  Scenery 65 

VIII  Mining  and  Hunting 73 

IX  Monks  and  Monasteries 83 

X Across  Korea 97 

XI  Drought  and  Starvation 108 

XII  The  Missionary  Question 114 

XIII  Travelling  in  Korea 123 

XIV  Resting  in  Kang-Wha 137 

XV  The  Sorrows  of  a Coveted  Kingdom  . . 153 

XVI  In  The  Land  of  Morning  Calm  . . . 180 

XVII  The  Relations  of  Korea  with  Japan  . . 217 

XVIII  The  Administration 233 

XIX  The  Judiciary 243 

XX  Trade  Conditions  To-day 253 

XXI  Maritime  Undertakings 265 

XXII  Railroads,  Telegraphs,  and  Telephones  . 269 

XXIII  Public  Works 278 

XXIV  Industrial  Encouragement 285 

XXV  Sanitation  and  Water  Works  ....  294 

XXVI  Education 302 

XXVII  A Glance  at  the  Future 310 

Index 323 


v 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

A View  of  the  Harbour  of  Chemulpo  ....  Frontispiece 

Native  Korean  Women  Washing  Clothes 32 

Korean  Natives  Building  Houses 64 

Arch  Erected  to  Commemorate  the  Subjugation  of  Korea 

by  China 160 

Exterior  of  Reception  Room,  Queen’s  Apartments,  East 

Palace,  Seoul 192 

The  Temple  of  Heaven  where  the  Emperor  Prayed  for 

Rain  and  the  National  Blessings 224 


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, lit* 


INTRODUCTION 


CHOSUN,  or  “,The  Land  of  the  Morning  Calm,”  was, 
at  the  time  of  which  I write,  a kingdom  on  the 
extreme  east  of  Asia,  consisting  of  a large  penin- 
sula opposite  Japan  and  of  two  lobes,  a shorter  one 
to  the  south-east,  the  other  a long  slice  of  the  Asiatic 
seaboard  north,  resembhng  the  peninsula  reversed.  In 
shape  the  country  so  counterparted  a butterfly  in  flight 
as  to  impress  its  people’s  imagination  to  frequent  allu- 
sion to  the  fact  in  poetry  and  prose.  It  was  my  fortune 
to  visit  this  land  once  and  to  dwell  there  for  a winter 
as  the  guest  of  the  Government  at  a time  when  to  do  so 
savoured  of  romance.  For  nothing  then  could  have  been 
more  out  of  the  world,  more  like  a fairy  tale  come  true, 
than  this  secluded,  cut  off  corner  of  it.  In  character 
certainly  it  suggested  anything  but  a butterfly,  nor  had 
Japan  then  thought  of  capturing  the  country  for  its  own 
collection.  Dormant  it  had  been  for  centuries;  sleeping 
oblivious  of  the  world  without,  in  the  long  lethargic 
trance  of  the  chrysalis. 

Of  this  its  chrysalis  state,  gone  now  never  to  return,  I 
am  about  to  speak  by  way  of  preface  to  this  volume 
written  by  others  and  treating  of  the  Korea  of  to-day. 

For  a man  to  outlive  a nation,  to  be  able  to  look  back 
upon  a portion  of  his  own  existence  passed  amid  a setting 
which  has  since  crumbled  away,  gives  him  a sense  of 
unreality  and  persuades  him  of  being  preternaturally 
old.  What  once  he  knew  so  well  seems  alien  to  its  own 


IX 


INTRODUCTION 


successor,  and  he  stands  convicted  of  intrusion  now  where 
he  lived  invited  years  ago.  Yet  as  the  boy  is  father  to 
the  man,  so  may  a glimpse,  albeit  resurrected,  of  what 
Korea  was  twenty-seven  years  since  serve  fittingly  for 
frontispiece  in  local  colour  to  a story  others  are  to  tell. 

It  was  a grey  December  morning  in  1883  when  my  eyes 
opened  upon  Chemulpo,  the  portal  to  the  Land  of  the 
Morning  Calm.  Very  early  morning  it  seemed  it  must 
be;  for  the  people  of  the  country  whom  one  could  make 
out  moving  about  on  shore  looked  all  to  be  clad  in  their 
night-clothes,  long  white  cotton  garments  of  the  usual 
non-committal  nocturnal  cut  as  to  age,  sex,  or  previous 
condition  of  sleepitude.  The  general  effect  was  height- 
ened by  a broad-brimmed,  high-crowned,  horsehair  hat. 
The  hat  turned  out  to  be  the  badge  of  manhood;  but 
even  prolonged  acquaintance  proved  no  easy  preface  for 
distinguishing  boys  from  girls. 

To  mark  this  panorama  from  the  steamer’s  deck  was 
to  have  the  curtain  go  up  upon  a bit  of  unreal  life;  to 
go  ashore  subsequently  like  joining  the  exotic  actors’ 
company  in  the  out-of-keeping  modern  traveller  part. 
Miles  of  mud-flats  — for  the  tide  was  out  — glistened 
for  foot-lights  to  this  taking  to  the  stage.  Perhaps  noth- 
ing can  point  the  transition  from  one  character  to  the 
other  better  than  by  saying  that  the  Japanese  Consul 
had  us  to  dinner  that  evening,  my  Japanese  secretary  ‘ 
and  I,  in  order  that  both  he  and  we  might  get  a glimpse 
of  home.  Indeed  throughout  my  sojourn  in  the  country 
I was  always  addressed,  when  possible,  in  Japanese  as 
being  in  native  eyes  my  stepmother  tongue. 

Of  the  palanquin  ride  that  followed,  from  the  coast  to 
the  capitol  Seoul,  I have  the  most  acute  remembrances 

* Since  the  well-known  diplomat  Miyaoka  Tsenejiro. 


X 


INTRODUCTION 


— it  is  not  easy  to  be  borne,  though  one  be  not  the 
bearer  — as  also  of  the  hostelry,  or  farmhouse,  where  we 
passed  the  night.  For  the  going  up  was  an  all-day  jour- 
ney over  those  twenty-six  miles  of  unconveyanced  land, 
a day’s  march  which  the  Koreans  amplified  to  two. 
Nobody  of  course  ever  walked  except  the  happily  cir- 
cumstanced individuals  whom  poverty  constrained.  But 
when  in  the  afternoon  of  the  second  day  the  Koreans 
unaccountably  quickened  their  pace  and  on  topping  a rise 
I saw  before  me  the  long  crenellated  wall  of  an  old-time 
city  of  the  East  with  its  parapets  stretching  in  per- 
spective into  the  distance,  the  romance  of  the  situation 
asserted  itself.  I discovered  also  the  reason  for  the  un- 
seemly haste  the  Koreans  had  so  suddenly  manifested,  at 
the  eleventh  hour.  Unless  we  reached  the  city  gates  before 
sunset,  it  appeared,  we  should  be  shut  out.  We  fortu- 
nately managed  this  far-eastern  feat,  and  I half  expected 
to  see  a fluttering  handkerchief  thrust  through  the  iron 
bars  that  shuttered  the  loophole  windows  of  the  houses 
well-nigh  brushed  in  passing,  in  recognition  of  the  fact. 
None  waved,  however;  for  it  is  only  the  unexpected  that 
happens  and  this  was  too  fitting  a fancy  to  be  fulfilled. 
Fate  nevertheless  could  not  alter  the  city  nor  prevent 
its  denizens  from  stopping  and  staring  at  us  as  we 
passed,  once  threateningly,  though  she  checked  all 
serious  demonstration. 

After  thus  threading  the  principal  thoroughfares  and 
winding  through  others  which  would  almost  be  dignified 
by  the  name  of  alleys,  we  halted  at  the  inconspicuous 
portal  of  the  compound  designated  for  my  reception. 
It  well  deserved  the  appellation  of  compound  from  the 
motley  collection  of  buildings,  connected  and  detached, 
it  contained  and  the  party  walls  and  gates  that  both 


XI 


INTRODUCTION 


separated  and  joined  them.  Here  the  Foreign  Office,  im- 
posing in  its  new-styled  function,  held  its  sittings. 

It  was  a strangely  secluded  scholastic  life  I led;  stroll- 
ing about  the  city  by  day  with  a gaily  uniformed  escort 
and  studying  out  by  night  the  mechanism  of  its  exist- 
ence, things  we  take  at  home  for  granted,  but  which  here 
assumed  importance  for  being  upside  down.  If  there 
was  little  to  be  seen,  there  was  much  to  be  seen  through; 
and  if  not  deepening  it  was  at  least  broadening  to  realise 
how  little  in  reality  is  matter  of  course  in  the  ways 
of  men.  It  was  like  being  born  again  and  having  to 
acquire  a totally  new  alphabet  of  human  experience. 
As  the  creature  comforts  were  on  the  same  level  of  sim- 
plicity I cannot  say  that  it  was  as  delightful  in  the  doing 
as  in  reminiscence  afterward.  But  one  point  about  it 
gave  it  a fillip  second  to  none  — it  was  virgin.  That 
meant  much.  _ For  it  was  all  an  experience  which  can  never 
be  repeated.  It  was  not  only  living  at  one’s  antipodes, 
but  it  was  a going  backward  centuries  into  the  past  and 
being  one’s  self  eye-witness  of  what  but  imperfectly  gets 
embalmed  in  books.  An  offshoot  from  human  evolution, 
its  civilisation  was  both  unique  and  atavistic.  Self- 
cut off  practically  for  centuries  it  remained  exclusive 
by  desire.  To  find  one’s  self  in  it  was  more  like  having 
voyaged  to  some  other  planet  than  to  be  still  on  earth. 
It  was  certainly  lonely  enough  at  times,  but  it  was  a 
loneliness  heightened  to  grandeur  to  sit  at  night  alone 
in  my  improvised  sitting-room  and  hear  the  great  bell 
of  the  city  boom  its  sentinelling  vigil  across  a sleeping 
land.  Two  comets  I remember  appeared  in  the  heavens 
that  winter  which  seemed  almost  companionable  by 
contrast  on  this  the  other  side  of  our  world  where  day 
is  night,  and  night,  day. 


Xll 


INTRODUCTION 


Nature  herself  was  in  keeping,  relatively  virgin  and 
unique.  Animals  inhabited  the  country  such  as  one 
would  never  have  dared  conceive.  Tigers  and  leopards 
roamed  the  hills,  cut-ofiP  cousins  of  their  race  long  since 
retreated  south,  as  secluded  now  from  their  kind  as  the 
people  themselves.  The  larder,  too,  would  have  pleased  an 
epicure.  On  Christmas  day  I dined  off  a great  bustard, 
stuffed  with  a pheasant,  itself  stuffed  with  chestnuts. 
On  the  other  hand  what  we  deem  common  necessities 
in  food:  milk,  cream,  butter,  cheese,  no  Korean  thought 
of  as  possible.  No  cow  was  ever  milked  even  by 
the  poor  and  beef  was  eaten  only  by  the  rich.  Ori- 
ental grains  made  the  staple  of  consumption  and  sesame 
from  a cryptic  password  sank  into  a simple  article  of 
food.  One  walked,  as  it  were,  amid  the  setting  of  the 
Arabian  Nights. 

Nevertheless,  feasting  was  the  great  and  only  enter- 
tainment of  the  land.  A banquet  constituted  an  all-day 
affair.  For  it  began  on  the  appointed  date  as  early  as 
the  Koreans  could  get  to  work,  some  time  after  noon, 
and  was  prolonged  till  the  hues  of  sunset  deepened  into 
night.  The  rosy  tints  of  the  dying  day  were  held  to  be 
poetically  symbolic  of  the  flush  of  wine  and  with  orien- 
tal regard  for  imagery  were  consecrate  to  such  occasions. 
Wine,  woman,  and  song  sped  the  day’s  departure,  the  last 
two  professional  as  in  like  entertainments  in  old  Japan. 
Then  in  the  deepening  dusk  the  palanquins  were  sum- 
moned, the  bearers,  with  their  huge  paper  lamps,  flitting 
like  fireflies  about  the  courtyard.  Amid  a bustle  which 
the  strange  coloured  costumes  made  into  a picture  by 
itself,  each  retinue  in  turn  drew  out,  swept  through  the 
gateway  and  departed  homeward  and  to  rest. 

But  the  romance  had  its  realistie  sub-stratum,  too. 

xiii 


INTRODUCTION 


If  everything  seemed  lazily  peaceful  from  without,  it  was 
not  so  within.  Intrigues  and  mysterious  takings  off  were 
the  order  of  the  day.  Internal  revolutions  occurred  with 
regular  irregularity  and  those  in  power  on  Monday  by 
Tuesday  night  have  their  heads  cut  off.  Since  the  days 
they  feasted  me  almost  all  my  Korean  oflBcial  friends  have 
met  violent  deaths.  The  men  I knew  are  no  more,  and 
now  the  country  itself  has  been  wiped  from  the  map. 

Even  as  I write,  Korea  has  ceased  to  exist.  It  has 
passed  under  the  dominion  of  its  neighbour  and  become  a 
department  of  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun.  The  land 
of  the  Dawn  has  changed  into  the  land  of  the  Day.  Its 
sleeping  calm  has  been  rudely  broken,  not  as  with  an 
ordinary  awakening,  but  with  that  severing  meta- 
morphosis by  which  the  chrysalis  passes  utterly  and 
irrevocably  into  the  butterfly  — netted  by  Japan. 

Pekcival  Lowell. 


XIV 


EDITORIAL  NOTE 


NO  one  can  read  this  volume  without  seeing  the 
Finger  of  Fate  pointing  constantly  to  the  most 
recent  and  the  most  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  Korea  — an  event  which  has  come  about  as  the 
inevitable  result  of  the  course  things  had  been  taking 
in  the  Far  East  for  the  previous  quarter  of  a century — its 
absorption  into  the  Empire  of  Japan  which  took  place 
in  August,  1910.  This  step  was  vitally  necessary  for 
Japan  if  she  is  to  work  out  her  manifest  destiny  to 
entrench  herself  on  the  mainland. 

Korea  has  always  been  called  “The  Hermit  Country.” 
Before  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan,  much  of 
which  was  fought  within  the  borders  of  Korea,  this  com- 
paratively unknown  land  was  seldom  visited  by  travellers. 
Its  geographical  position  made  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
inevitable,  for  Korea  extends  as  a peninsula  from  the 
mainland,  where  Russia  was  in  fortified  possession; 
she  was  so  near  to  Japan  in  fact  as  to  endanger  its  peace 
if  Korea  were  to  remain  in  Russian  hands.  As  a nation 
Korea  was  altogether  without  means  of  self-defence; 
consequently,  in  order  to  protect  this  country  as  well 
as  itself,  Japan,  with  the  consent  of  China,  maintained 
a protectorate  over  Korea.  The  war  with  Russia  gave 
Japan  her  opportunity  to  enforce  this  attitude  of  pro- 
tection, and  subsequent  events  as  detailed  in  this  volume 
have  led  logically  to  this  great  final  step. 

With  their  typical  foresight  the  Japanese  have  long 

XV 


EDITORIAL  NOTE 


been  preparing  for  it  and  the  progress  they  have  already 
made  in  re-establishing  this  seemingly  hopeless  country 
on  a sound  basis  is  remarkable.  Japan  encouraged  its 
citizens  to  migrate  to  Korea  in  great  numbers.  Not  less 
than  forty  thousand  Japanese  agents  are  said  to  have 
been  at  work  surveying  the  country,  settling  among  the 
people,  and  preparing  the  way  before  the  Russo-Japanese 
struggle;  but  it  is  since  the  war  that  most  of  the  work 
has  been  done. 

All  the  chief  ports  are  now  connected  with  a railroad  as 
well  built,  as  comfortable  as,  and,  it  is  said,  more  profitable 
than  most  American^roads.  Imports  and  exports  have 
increased  and  the  fisheries  are  being  developed.  A good 
tramway,  which  the  natives  have  been  taught  to  conduct, 
now  runs  through  Seoul.  Women  have  gained  some  free- 
dom and  some  recognition  from  the  law  under  Japanese 
influence,  and  now,  with  the  Japanese  women  as  examples, 
some  of  the  Korean  women  venture  forth;  they  no  longer 
hesitate  to  appear  before  men  not  of  their  own  families 
and  they  begin  to  become  personalities  instead  of  the 
nameless  chattels  — they  were  merely  known  as  so  and 
so’s  wife,  or  mother,  or  sister  — which  they  used  to  be. 

American  commerce  in  many  important  branches  has 
already  obtained  a firm  foothold  in  Korea,  and  it  would 
appear  from  the  statements  made  by  the  Japanese 
Government  that  the  opportunities  for  trade  with 
Chosen,  as  Korea  is  in  future  to  be  called,  will  increase 
under  the  new  regime. 

Japan  has  made  her  choice;  the  party  of  peaceful  but 
powerful  expansion  has  prevailed  and  upon  her  wise 
administration  of  this  new  territory  the  future  of  the  Far 
East  will  largely  depend. 

Charles  Welsh. 


xvi 


GLIMPSES  OF  LIFE  IN  KOREA 


By  Angus  Hamilton 


• i 

i 

i 


t 


KOREA 


CHAPTER  I 

OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 

Despite  the  survey  work  which  has  been 
accomplished  in  the  past  by  the  Japanese 
upon  the  coasts  of  Korea,  little  knowledge  of 
the  numerous  islands  and  archipelagoes,  shoals  and 
reefs  which  make  its  shores  the  terror  of  all  mariners, 
exists  at  present.  Until  the  voyage  of  the  Alceste 
and  Lyra  in  1816,  the  locality  of  these  detached 
groups  of  rocky  islets  was  not  marked  on  any  of 
the  Japanese  or  Chinese  maps  of  the  period.  In 
the  map  of  the  empire  prepared  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Pekin  in  the  seventeenth  century,  the  space  now 
occupied  by  the  Korean  Archipelago  was  covered 
with  the  drawing  of  an  elephant  — the  conventional 
sign  of  the  ignorance  of  the  cartographers  of  that  time. 
In  the  older  native  maps,  the  mainland  embraced 
groups  of  islands,  the  most  imperfect  knowledge  of 
the  physical  configuration  of  their  own  shores  pre- 
vailing among  the  Koreans.  In  quite  recent  days, 
however,  the  Korean  government  has  recognised 
this  fact,  and  in  the  early  months  of  1903  the  Japa- 
nese government  was  requested  to  draw  up  a com- 
plete survey  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  This  work 

3 


KOREA 


is  now  in  process  of  execution,  the  plan  of  the  coast- 
line already  having  been  completed. 

The  coast  of  Korea  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
spacious  harbours  which  distinguish  it.  Upon  the 
west  and  south,  indications  of  the  volcanic  period, 
through  which  the  country  has  in  part  passed,  are 
shown  by  the  frequency  with  which  these  island 
groups  occur.  From  a single  peak  upon  one  of  the 
small  islands  off  the  south-west  coast,  as  many  as 
one  hundred  and  thirty-five  islets  may  be  counted, 
stretching  to  the  north  and  to  the  south,  the  resort 
of  the  sea-fowl;  desolate  and  almost  uninhabited. 
Many  of  the  more  important  islands  have  been  cul- 
tivated, and  give  refuge  and  a lonely  home  to  small 
communities  of  fishing-folk. 

Navigation  is  peculiarly  dangerous  in  these  waters. 
Many  of  the  islands  are  submerged  by  the  spring- 
tides,  and  the  direction  of  the  channels,  scoured  by 
the  rush  of  the  tide,  becomes  quite  indefinite.  In  the 
absence  of  charts  and  maps,  these  island-fringed 
shores  have  been  the  scene  of  many  shipwrecks; 
Dutch,  American,  French,  and  British  shipping 
meeting  in  one  grim  and  silent  procession  a common 
end:  captivity  on  shore  or  death  in  the  sea.  Some 
of  these  unfortunate  mariners  survived  their  experi- 
ences, leaving,  after  the  fashion  of  Hendrik  Hamel, 
the  supercargo  of  the  Dutch  frigate  Sparwehr,  which 
went  ashore  off  Quelpart  in  1653,  records  and  his- 
tories of  their  adventures  to  an  incredulous  poster- 
ity. Most  of  the  islands  lying  off  the  coast  are 
well  wooded.  As  they  are  very  beautiful  to  look 

4 


OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 


upon  and  very  dangerous  to  approach,  they  are 
regarded  with  mingled  sentiments  of  reverence  and 
superstition,  differing  little,  in  their  expression, 
from  the  fear  in  which  the  ancients  held  the  terrors 
of  Scylla  and  Charybdis.  Their  isolated  position, 
moreover,  has  made  them  the  centre  of  much  contra- 
band trade  between  the  Chinese  and  Koreans;  their 
defenceless  state  renders  them  an  easy  prey  to  any 
pirates  who  care  to  ravage  them. 

The  islands  off  the  south-west  coast  are  the  sanc- 
tuaries of  many  animals.  Seals  sport  and  play 
unharmed  among  the  rocks;  the  woody  peaks  are 
rich  in  game:  teal,  crane,  curlew,  quail,  and  innumer- 
able small  birds  make  them  their  breeding-grounds. 
The  shores  are  happy  hunting-grounds  for  natural- 
ists, and  a variety  of  marine  food  is  found  throughout 
the  archipelago.  A number  of  well-marked  species 
of  sponge  may  be  gathered,  and  the  coral  beds  dis- 
play many  violent  tints  and  delicate  shades,  forming 
in  their  beautiful  colourings  a sea  garden  of  match- 
less splendour.  The  flora  of  these  islands  is  a no 
less  brilliant  feature  of  the  summer  landscape. 
Tiger-lilies  showy  and  gigantic,  daisies,  asters, 
many  varieties  of  cactus,  grow  side  by  side  with 
curious  ferns,  palms  and  creepers,  almost  tropical 
in  their  character  and  profusion,  yet  surviving  the 
cooler  temperature  of  autumn  and  winter,  to  greet 
each  coming  spring  with  freshened  beauty.  The 
air  vibrates  with  the  singing  and  buzzing  of  insects, 
the  limpid  day  is  bright  with  gaudy  butterflies. 
Snow-white  herons  stand  in  the  shallows.  Cor- 

5 


KOREA 


morants,  diving  birds  and  ducks  throng  the  reefs 
to  rise  in  clouds  with  many  angry  splutterings 
when  their  haunts  are  invaded.  In  the  deeper 
waters  there  are  myriads  of  fish;  in  passing  from 
group  to  group  along  the  coast  shoals  of  whales  are 
to  be  seen,  blowing  columns  of  spray  aloft,  or  sleep- 
ing idly  upon  the  surface. 

The  coast  of  Korea  is  well  sprinkled  with  the  names 
of  foreign  navigators,  who,  in  previous  centuries, 
essayed  to  visit  the  Land  of  the  Morning  Radiance. 
With  rare  exceptions,  these  visitors  were  turned 
back.  Some  were  captured  and  tortured;  many 
were  ordered  off  at  once,  few  were  ever  entertained. 
None  were  invited  to  make  any  stay  in  the  new  land, 
or  permitted  to  inspect  its  wonders  and  curiosities. 
Beyond  the  Japanese,  those  who  succeeded  in  sapping 
the  wall  of  isolation  which  was  so  carefully  built 
around  the  country  and  so  rigorously  maintained, 
were  generally  escorted  inland  as  prisoners,  the 
unconscious  victims  of  some  successful  stratagem. 
In  a manner,  the  fashion  of  their  treatment  is 
revealed  in  the  curious  names  with  which  these 
pioneers  of  navigation  have  labelled  the  capes  and 
promontories,  the  islands  and  shoals,  which  they 
were  lucky  enough  to  locate  and  whose  dangers 
they  were  fortunate  enough  to  avoid.  Many  of 
these  names  have  ceased  to  be  recognised.  The 
lapse  of  time  has  caused  them  to  be  obliterated  by 
European  hydrographers  from  the  maps  and  charts 
of  the  country  and  seas,  in  which  their  originators 
had  risked  so  much.  In  many  parts  of  the  coast, 

6 


OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 


however,  particularly  upon  the  west,  along  the  shores 
of  the  Chyung-chyong  Province,  these  original 
names  have  been  preserved.  They  form,  to-day,  a 
tribute  to  the  earnestness  and  intrepidity  of  these 
early  explorers.  This  meed  of  recognition  is  only 
just,  and  is  not  to  be  denied  to  their  undoubted 
gallantry  and  enterprise. 

It  is  not  impossible  to  believe  that  an  unusually 
fickle  fate  followed  in  their  footsteps,  prompting 
them  to  leave  thus  for  the  guidance  of  future  genera- 
tions, some  hint  of  their  own  miscalculations.  If 
one  may  judge  from  the  brief  narratives  which 
these  discoverers  have  left  behind  them,  the  result 
of  their  work  upon  these  inhospitable  shores  sur- 
passed anything  that  they  had  foreseen.  The  visit 
of  these  hardy  spirits  aroused  the  curiosity  of  the 
Koreans,  giving  to  them  their  first  knowledge  of 
that  outer  world  which  they  had  spurned  for  cen- 
turies. Despite  the  golden  opportunities  now  pre- 
sented to  them,  however,  they  continued  to  neglect 
it.  The  memory  of  the  black  ships  and  the  red 
beards  (Dutchmen)  — as  they  dubbed  the  strange 
craft  and  stranger  devils,  that  had  only  to  appear 
off  their  shores  to  be  shipwrecked  — dwelt  long  in 
their  minds.  Although  they  treated  these  strangers 
with  comparative  generosity,  they  were  careful  to 
preserve  inviolate  the  secrets  and  sanctity  of  their 
land.  They  rejected  with  contumacy  the  friendly 
overtures  of  strangers  who  came  in  monster  ships, 
and  who,  forsooth,  left  behind  nothing  but  a name. 
It  is  scarcely  astonishing,  therefore,  that  there  are 

7 


KOREA 


many  points  upon  the  coast  of  Korea  which  bear 
somewhat  uncomplimentary  names.  Deception  Bay, 
Insult  Island,  and  False  River  savour  of  certain 
physical  and  mental  discomforts  which,  too  great 
to  be  borne  in  silence,  left  an  indelible  impres- 
sion upon  the  associations  of  the  spot. 

If  the  Dutch  sailors  of  1627  were  among  the 
earliest  to  reach  the  forbidding  shores  of  this  king- 
dom, the  activities  of  British  voyagers  were  most 
prominent  in  the  succeeding  century.  The  work  of 
Captain  W.  R.  Broughton,  of  the  British  sloop-o’- 
war,  of  sixteen  guns.  Providence,  is  described  to  this 
day  by  the  bays  and  harbours  into  which  he  pene- 
trated, and  the  capes  and  straits  which  this  gallant 
man  christened,  to  the  credit  of  the  distant  island 
kingdom  from  which  he  hailed.  Broughton  in  1797, 
Maxwell  of  the  Alceste,  with  Basil  Hall,  commander 
of  the  British  sloop-o’-war,  the  Lyra,  in  1816,  deserve 
the  passing  fame  which  is  secured  to  them  by  the 
waters  and  capes  which  have  been  named  after 
them.  Their  names  figure  as  landmarks  upon  the 
west,  the  east,  and  the  south  coasts.  TMiile  Max- 
well and  Hall  preferred  to  devote  their  attention  to 
the  discovery  and  examination  of  the  Korean  Archi- 
pelago — of  which,  although  Broughton  does  not 
mention  it,  it  seems  impossible  that  the  discoverer 
of  Broughton  Strait  can  have  been  ignorant  — 
Broughton  roughly  charted  and  surveyed  the  west 
coasts,  coming  to  a temporary  halt  in  Broughton 
Bay,  some  six  hundred  miles  to  the  north.  Hall 
left  his  name  in  Basil’s  Bay,  where  Gutzlaff  landed 

8 


OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 

in  1832  to  plant  potatoes  and  to  leave  seeds  and 
books.  A generation  later,  in  1866,  the  archipel- 
ago to  the  north-west  was  named  after  the  Prince 
Imperial,  who  was  to  meet  his  death  in  Zululand  in 
1878.  In  1867,  Prince  Jerome’s  Gulf,  an  inlet  upon 
the  mainland  of  the  Chyung-chydng  Province,  was 
to  be  the  scene  of  Oppert’s  famous  attempt  to  remove 
large  deposits  of  buried  treasure  and  venerated 
relics  from  an  imperial  tomb.  These  names  upon 
the  east  and  west  coasts  suggest  nothing  of  the 
romance  which  actually  surrounds  them.  At  most 
they  conjure  up  the  shadowy  silhouettes  of  the 
redoubtable  personages  to  whom  they  once  belonged, 
and  with  whose  memory  many  journeys  of  discov- 
ery in  these  seas  are  inseparably  linked. 

Englishmen  were  not  the  sole  navigators  who 
were  attracted  by  the  unknown  character  of  the  land 
and  the  surpassing  dangers  of  the  waters,  around  the 
Island  of  Quelpart,  where  the  Sea  of  Japan  mingles 
in  tempestuous  chaos  with  the  Yellow  Sea.  Rus- 
sian and  French  navigators  also  worked  their  way 
through  the  dangerous  shoals  and  quicksands,  along 
the  tortuous  and  muddy  rivers,  into  the  harbours 
and  through  the  narrow  straits  which  hold  back 
these  islands  from  the  mainland.  The  shores  teem 
with  the  distinguished  names  of  men  of  science  and 
sons  of  the  high  seas.  Following  the  curl  and  twist  of 
its  configuration  a host  of  buried  names  are  revealed, 
the  last  evidence  of  men  who  are  dead  and  forgotten. 
It  is  infinitely  pathetic  that  even  this  one  last  rest- 
ing-place should  be  denied  to  their  reputations. 

9 


KOREA 


Lazreli,  who  shares  Broughton’s  Bay;  Unkoffsky, 
who  foundered  in  the  waters  of  the  bay  which  is  de- 
scribed by  his  name;  the  ill-fated  La  Perouse,  who,  in 
June,  1787,  discovered  in  the  Sea  of  Japan  an  island 
which  now  bears  the  name  of  the  astronomer  — 
Dagelet,  Durock,  Pellisier,  Schwartz,  and  the  rest  — 
what  echo  do  we  find  of  them,  their  fates,  and  subse- 
quent careers?  Should  not  their  names  at  least  bear 
witness  to  their  pains  and  labours,  to  the  diflSculties 
which  they  faced,  to  the  small  joy  of  something 
attempted,  something  done,  which  was  their  sole 
consolation  for  many  hours  of  cheerless  and  empty 
vigil? 

Korea  is  a land  of  exceptional  beauty.  The  cus- 
toms, the  literature,  and  the  geographical  nomen- 
clature of  the  kingdom  prove  that  the  superb  and 
inspiring  scenery  of  the  peninsula  is  quite  appreci- 
ated by  the  people.  In  the  same  manner  that  the 
coast-line  of  Korea  bears  evidence  of  the  adven- 
turous spirit  of  many  western  mariners,  the  names 
given  to  the  mountains  and  rivers  of  the  country 
by  the  inhabitants  themselves  reflect  the  simplic- 
ity, the  crudity,  and  the  superstition  of  their  ideas 
and  beliefs.  All  mountains  are  personified  in  Korea. 
In  the  popular  belief,  they  are  usually  associated 
with  dragons.  Every  village  offers  sacrifices  to  the 
mountain-spirits.  Shrines  are  erected  by  the  way- 
side  and  in  the  mountain  passes,  that  travellers  may 
tender  their  offerings  to  the  spirits  and  secure  their 
goodwill.  The  Koreans  believe  that  the  mountains 
in  some  way  exert  a benign  and  protecting  influ- 

10 


OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 

ence.  The  capital  of  Korea  possesses  its  guardian- 
mountain.  Every  town  relies  upon  some  preserving 
power  to  maintain  its  existence.  Graves,  too,  must 
have  their  custodian  peaks,  or  the  family  will  not 
prosper,  and  the  impression  prevails  that  people 
are  born  in  accordance  with  the  conformation  of 
the  hills  upon  which  the  tombs  of  their  ancestors 
are  situated.  Rough  and  rugged  contours  make  for 
warriors  and  militant  males.  Smooth  surfaces  and 
gentle  descents  beget  scholars;  peaks  of  singular 
charm  and  position  are  associated  with  beautiful 
women.  Like  the  mountain-ranges,  lakes  and  pools, 
rivers  and  streams  exercise  geomantic  powers,  and 
they  are  the  abodes  of  presiding  shades,  benevolent 
or  pernicious.  In  lakes,  there  are  dragons  and  lesser 
monsters.  In  mountain  pools,  however,  no  wraith 
exists  unless  some  one  is  drowned  in  the  waters  of 
the  pool.  When  this  fatality  occurs,  the  figure  of 
the  dead  haunts  the  pool  until  released  by  the  ghost 
of  the  next  person  who  meets  with  this  misfortune. 
The  serpent  is  almost  synonymous  wth  the  dragon. 
Certain  fish  become  in  time  fish-dragons;  snakes 
become  elevated  to  the  dignity,  and  imbued  with 
the  ferocity,  of  dragons  when  they  have  spent  one 
thousand  years  in  the  captivity  of  the  mountains, 
and  one  thousand  years  in  the  water.  All  these 
apparitions  may  be  propitiated  with  sacrifices  and 
prayers. 

In  the  province  of  Kang- won,  through  which  the 
ranges  of  the  Diamond  Mountains  pass,  there  are 
several  peaks  symbolical  of  this  belief  in  the  existence 

11 


KOREA 


of  supernatural  monsters.  One  dizzy  height  is 
named  the  Yellow  Dragon,  a second  the  Flying 
Phoenix,  and  a third,  the  Hidden  Dragon,  has  refer- 
ence to  a demon  who  has  not  yet  risen  from  the  earth 
before  his  ascent  to  the  clouds.  The  names  which 
the  Koreans  give  to  their  rivers,  lakes  and  villages, 
as  also  to  their  mountains,  bear  out  their  wish  to 
see  the  natural  beauties  of  their  land  associated 
with  its  more  distinctive  features.  This  idiosyn- 
crasy, however,  would  seem  to  be  exceptionally 
pronounced  in  the  case  of  mountains.  The  Moun- 
tain fronting  the  Moon,  the  Mountain  facing  the 
Sun,  the  Tranquil  Sea,  the  Valley  of  Cool  Shade, 
and  the  Hill  of  White  Clouds  emphasise  this  desire. 
Again,  in  Hamkyong,  the  most  northern  province 
in  the  empire,  the  more  conspicuous  peaks  receive 
such  designations  as  the  Peak  of  Continuous  Vir- 
tue, the  Peak  of  the  Thousand  Buddhas,  the  Last- 
ing Peace,  the  Sword  Mountain,  Heaven  Reaching 
Peak,  the  Cloud  Toucher.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  appreciation  of  nature,  no  less  than  reverence 
for  the  supernatural,  underlies  the  system  by  which 
they  evolve  names  for  the  landmarks  of  their  coun- 
try. The  peculiarities  of  their  land  afiPord  great 
scope  for  such  a practice,  and  it  is  to  be  admitted 
that  they  give  ample  vent  to  this  peculiar  trait  in 
their  imagination. 

From  very  early  times  until  1895  the  king  of 
Korea  was  a vassal  of  China,  but  the  complete 
renunciation  of  the  authority  of  the  emperor  of 
China  was  proclaimed  in  January,  1895,  by  an 

12 


OUTLINE  OF  HISTORY 

imperial  decree.  This  was  the  fruit  of  the  Chino- 
Japanese  war,  and  it  was  ratified  by  China  under 
the  seal  of  the  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Shimon- 
osaki  in  May  of  the  same  year.  The  monarchy  is 
hereditary  and  the  present  dynasty  has  occupied 
the  throne  of  Korea  in  continuous  entail  since  1392. 
Inhabited  by  a people  whose  traditions  and  history 
extend  over  a period  of  five  thousand  years,  and  sub- 
jected to  kaleidoscopic  changes  whereby  smaller 
tribes  were  absorbed  by  larger,  and  weaker  govern- 
ments overthrown  by  stronger,  Korea  has  gradually 
evolved  one  kingdom,  which,  embracing  all  units 
under  her  own  protection,  has  presented  to  the 
world  through  centuries  a more  or  less  composite 
and  stable  authority.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  whilom  vassal  of  China,  in  respect  of  which 
China  and  Japan  made  war,  has  taken  much  greater 
strides  upon  the  path  of  progress  than  her  ancient 
neighbour  and  liege  lord.  There  is  no  question  of 
the  superiority  of  the  conditions  under  which  the 
Koreans  in  Seoul  live  and  those  prevailing  in  Pekin, 
when  each  city  is  regarded  as  the  capital  of  its 
country  — the  representative  centre  in  which  all 
that  is  best  and  brightest  congregates. 

It  was  in  1876  that  Korea  made  her  first  modern 
treaty.  It  was  not  until  three  years  later  that  any 
exchange  of  envoys  took  place  between  the  contract- 
ing party  and  herself.  Despite  the  treaty,  Korea 
showed  no  disposition  to  profit  by  the  existence  of 
her  new  relations,  until  the  opening  of  Chemulpo 
to  trade  in  the  latter  part  of  1883  revealed  to  her 

13 


KOREA 


the  commercial  advantages  which  she  was  now  in  a 
position  to  enjoy.  All  this  time  China  had  been  in 
intercourse  with  foreigners.  Legations  had  been 
established  in  her  capital;  consuls  were  in  charge 
of  the  open  ports;  commercial  treaties  had  been 
arranged.  She  was  already  old  and  uncanny  in 
the  wisdom  which  came  to  her  by  this  dealing  with 
the  people  of  Western  nations.  But,  in  a spirit  of 
perversity  without  parallel  in  constitutional  his- 
tory, China  retired  within  herself  to  such  a degree 
that  Japan,  within  one  generation,  has  advanced  to 
the  position  of  a great  power,  and  even  Korea  has 
become,  within  twenty  years,  the  superior  of  her 
former  liege.  In  less  than  a decade  Korea  has  pro- 
moted works  of  an  industrial  or  humanitarian  char- 
acter which  China,  at  the  present  time,  is  bitterly 
and  fatally  opposing.  It  is  true  that  the  liberal 
tendencies  of  Korea  have  been  stimulated  by  asso- 
ciation with  the  Japanese.  Without  the  guiding 
hand  of  that  energetic  country  the  position  which 
she  would  enjoy  to-day  is  infinitely  problematical. 
The  contact  has  been  wholly  beneficial.  Its  con- 
tinuation forms  the  strongest  guarantee  of  the  event- 
ual development  of  the  resources  of  the  kingdom. 


14 


CHAPTER  II 


LAND  AND  FOLK 

Korea  is  an  extremely  mountainous  country. 

Islands,  harbours,  and  mountains  are  its 
most  pronounced  natural  features,  and 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  coast  consists  of  the  slopes  of 
the  various  mountain  ranges  which  come  down  to 
the  sea.  There  are  many  patches  upon  the  west, 
where  the  approaches  are  less  precipitous  and  rugged 
than  upon  the  east.  The  coast  seems  to  follow  the 
contour  of  the  mountains.  It  presents,  particularly 
from  the  east,  that  lofty  and  inaccessible  barrier 
of  forest-clad  country,  which  has  won  the  admira- 
tion of  all  navigators  and  struck  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  those  who  have  met  with  disaster  upon 
its  barren  and  rocky  shores.  From  Paik-tu-san  to 
Wi-ju  there  is  one  mighty  and  natural  panorama  of 
mountains  with  snow-clad,  cloud-wrapped  summits, 
and  beautiful  valleys  with  rich  crops  and  quaintly 
placed,  low-thatched  hovels,  through  which  rivers 
course  like  angry  silver.  Everywhere  in  the  north 
the  mountains  predominate;  monstrous  in  shape 
and  size.  They  are  rich  in  minerals;  they  have 
become  sepulchres  for  the  dead  and  mines  for  the 
living  — for  in  their  keeping  lies  the  wealth  of  the 
ages,  coal  and  iron  and  gold;  upon  their  summits, 

15 


KOREA 


resting  beneath  the  sky  or  within  some  nook  hewn 
from  their  rugged  slopes,  are  the  graves  of  the  dead. 
Mining  and  agriculture  are  almost  the  only  natural 
resources  of  the  kingdom.  There  are  great  possi- 
bilities, however,  in  the  awakening  energies  and 
instincts  of  the  people,  which  may  lead  them  to 
create  markets  of  their  own  by  growing  more  than 
suffices  for  their  immediate  requirements.  As  yet, 
notwithstanding  the  improvements  which  have  been 
inaugurated,  and  the  industrial  schemes  which  the 
government  has  introduced,  the  reform  movement 
lacks  cohesion.  Indeed,  the  nation  is  without  ambi- 
tion. But  the  prospect  is  hopeful.  Already  some- 
thing has  been  accomplished  in  the  right  direction. 

At  present,  however,  Korea  is  in  a state  of  transi- 
tion. Everything  is  undefined  and  indetermined ; 
the  past  is  in  ruins,  the  present  and  the  future  are 
in  the  rough.  Reforms  are  scarce  a decade  old, 
and,  while  many  abuses  have  been  redressed,  the 
reform  movement  suffers  for  lack  of  support, 
comprehension,  and  toleration.  The  aspirations  of 
the  few  are  extending  but  slowly  to  the  nation. 
Progress  is  gradual  and  the  interval  is  tedious. 
The  commercial  phase  of  the  movement  is  full 
of  vitality,  and  the  factories  which  have  been  estab- 
lished show  the  evolution  of  enterprise  from  aspira- 
tion. Foreigners  are  introducing  education,  while 
the  present  commercial  activities  are  attributable 
to  their  suggestion  and  assistance.  The  small 
response,  which  these  efforts  elicit,  make  the  labour 
of  keeping  the  nation  in  the  right  direction  very 

16 


LAND  AND  FOLK 

difficult.  The  people  can  scarcely  relapse  into  the 
conservatism  of  ancient  days,  but  they  may  col- 
lapse altogether,  owing  to  the  unfortunate  circum- 
stances which  are  now  making  Korea  an  object  of 
ironical  and  interested  observation  among  the  West- 
ern powers.  She  may  be  absorbed,  annexed,  or 
divided;  in  endeavouring  to  remain  independent, 
she  may  wreck  herself  in  the  general  anarchy  that 
may  overtake  her.  She  has  given  much  promise. 
She  has  constituted  a Customs  service,  joined  in 
the  Postal  Union  and  opened  her  ports.  She  has 
admitted  railways  and  telegraphs,  and  shown  kind- 
ness, consideration,  and  hospitality  to  every  condi- 
tion of  foreigner  within  her  gates.  Her  confidence 
has  been  that  of  a child  and  her  faults  are  those  of 
the  nursery.  She  is  so  old  and  yet  so  infinitely 
young;  and,  by  a curious  fatality,  she  is  now  face 
to  face  with  a situation  which  again  and  again  has 
occurred  in  her  past  history. 

The  introduction  of  Western  inventions  to  Korea 
has  gradually  eliminated  from  contemporary  Korean 
life  many  customs  which,  associated  with  the  people 
and  their  traditions  from  time  immemorial,  imparted 
much  of  the  repose  and  picturesqueness  which  have 
so  far  distinguished  the  little  kingdom.  Korea,  in 
the  twentieth  century,  bears  ample  evidence  of  the 
forward  movement  which  is  stimulating  its  people. 
Once  the  least  progressive  of  the  countries  of  the 
Far  East,  she  now  affords  an  exception  almost  as 
noticeable  as  that  shown  by  the  prompt  assimilation 
of  Western  ideas  and  methods  by  Japan.  Chemulpo, 

17 


KOREA 


however,  the  centre  in  which  an  important  foreign 
settlement  and  open  port  have  sprung  up,  does  not 
suggest  in  itself  the  completeness  of  the  transforma- 
tion which  in  a few  years  has  taken  place  in  the  cap- 
ital. It  is  twenty  years  since  Chemulpo  was  opened 
to  foreign  trade,  and  to-day  it  boasts  a magnificent 
bund,  wide  streets,  imposing  shops,  and  a train 
service  which  connects  with  the  capital.  Its  sky  is 
threaded  with  a maze  of  telephone  and  telegraph 
wires,  there  are  several  hotels  conducted  upon  West- 
ern principles,  and  there  is,  also,  an  international 
club. 

At  the  threshold  of  the  new  century,  the  port 
presents  an  interesting  study.  With  the  adjoining 
Ha-do,  a hamlet  of  military  pretensions,  it  has 
grown  in  the  twenty  years  of  its  existence  from  a 
cluster  of  fishermen’s  huts  behind  a hill  along  the 
river  at  Man-sak-dong  into  a prosperous  cosmo- 
politan centre  of  twenty  thousand  people.  Its 
growth,  since  the  first  treaty  was  negotiated  with  the 
West  upon  May  22,  1882,  by  the  American  Admiral 
Shufeldt,  has  been  extraordinary.  Its  earlier  years 
gave  no  promise  of  its  rapid  and  significant  advance. 
Trade  has  flourished,  and  a boom  in  the  trade  of 
the  port  has  sent  up  the  value  of  local  properties. 
There  is  now  danger  of  a decline  in  this  state  of 
affluence  which  may,  in  view  of  the  chaos  and 
uncertainty  of  the  future  of  the  kingdom,  retard  the 
settlement  and  disastrously  affect  its  present  pros- 
perity. From  small  and  uncertain  beginnings  four 
well-built,  well-lighted  settlements  have  sprung  up, 

18 


LAND  AND  FOLK 

expanding  into  a general  foreign,  a Japanese,  a 
Chinese,  and  a Korean  quarter.  The  Japanese 
section  is  the  best  situated  and  the  most  promising. 
The  interests  of  this  particular  nation  are  also  the 
most  prominent  in  the  export  and  import  trade  of 
the  port,  a position  which  is  emphasised  still  further 
by  the  important  nature  of  its  vested  interests, 
among  which  the  railroad  between  Seoul,  the  cap- 
ital, and  Chemulpo,  with  the  trunk  extension  to 
Fusan,  is  paramount.  The  Japanese  population 
increased  by  nearly  five  hundred  during  1901.  It 
then  numbered  some  four  thousand  six  hundred, 
of  whom  a few  hundred  were  soldiers  constituting 
a temporary  garrison  for  the  settlement.  How- 
ever, since  the  modification  by  the  Japanese  govern- 
ment of  the  emigration  laws  with  reference  to  China 
and  Korea,  under  which,  in  the  first  weeks  of  1902, 
the  necessity  for  travelling  passports  was  abol- 
ished in  the  case  of  these  two  countries,  there  has 
been  a great  increase  in  the  number  of  Japanese 
residents  at  the  treaty  ports.  The  settlement  at 
Chemulpo  now  embraces  one  thousand  two  hundred 
and  eighty-two  houses,  and  possesses  a population 
of  five  thousand  nine  hundred  and  seventy-three 
adults.  The  census  of  the  Chinese  settlement  fluc- 
tuates with  the  season;  considerable  numbers  of 
farmers  cross  from  Shan-tung  to  Korea  during  the 
summer,  returning  to  their  native  land  in  winter. 
In  the  period  of  exodus  from  China,  the  Chinese 
population  exceeds  twelve  hundred.  The  complete 
strength  of  the  general  foreign  settlement  is  eighty- 

19 


KOREA 


six,  of  which  some  twenty-nine  are  British.  The  one 
British  firm  in  Korea  is  established  in  Chemulpo. 

There  are  many  nationalities  in  Chemulpo,  and 
the  small  community,  excluding  the  Japanese  and 
Chinese,  is  made  up  as  follows:  British,  twenty-nine 
and  one  firm,  the  remaining  twenty -eight  being 
attached  to  the  Vice-Consulate,  the  Customs,  and 
a missionary  society;  American,  eight  and  two  firms; 
French,  six  and  one  firm;  German,  sixteen  and  one 
firm;  Italian,  seven  and  one  firm;  Russian,  four  and 
two  firms;  Greek,  two  and  one  firm;  Portuguese 
seven,  Hungarian  five,  and  Dutch  two,  the  last 
three  possessing  no  firms  in  the  port. 

A street  full  of  Koreans  aptly  suggests,  as  Mr. 
Henry  Norman,  M.P.,  once  wrote,  the  orthodox 
notion  of  the  Resurrection.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  appearance  of  both  men  and  women  makes 
the  capital  peculiarly  attractive.  The  men  are  fine, 
well-built,  and  peaceful  fellows,  dignified  in  their 
bearing,  polite  and  even  considerate  towards  one 
another.  The  type  shows  unmistakable  evidences 
of  descent  from  the  half  savage  and  nomadic  tribes 
of  Mongolia  and  Northern  Asia  and  the  Caucasian 
peoples  from  Western  Asia. 

These  two  races,  coming  from  the  North  in  the 
one  case  and  drifting  up  from  the  South  in  the  other, 
at  the  time  of  the  Ayran  invasion  of  India,  peopled 
the  north  and  south  of  Korea.  Finally  merging 
among  themselves,  they  gave  to  the  world  a compos- 
ite nation,  distinct  in  types,  habits,  and  speech,  and 
amalgamated  only  by  a rare  train  of  circumstances 

20 


LAND  AND  FOLK 

over  which  they  could  have  had  no  control.  It  is 
by  the  facial  resemblances  that  the  origin  of  the 
Koreans  may  be  traced  to  a Caucasian  race.  The 
speech  of  the  country,  while  closely  akin  to  Chinese, 
reproduces  sounds  and  many  verbal  denominations 
which  are  found  in  the  languages  of  India.  Korea 
has  submitted  to  the  influence  of  Chinese  arts  and 
literature  for  centuries,  but  there  is  little  actual 
agreement  between  the  legends  of  the  two  countries. 
The  folk-lore  of  China  is  in  radical  disagreement 
with  the  vague  and  shadowy  traditions  of  the  people 
of  Korea.  There  is  a vast  blank  in  the  early  his- 
tory of  Korea,  at  a period  when  China  is  repre- 
sented by  many  unimpaired  records.  Research  can 
make  no  advance  in  face  of  it:  surmise  and  logical 
reflections  from  extraneous  comparisons  can  alone 
supply  the  requisite  data.  Posterity  is  thus  pre- 
sented with  an  unrecorded  chapter  of  the  world’s 
history  which  at  best  can  be  only  faintly  sketched. 

If  British  interests  are  not  materially  represented 
in  Chemulpo,  other  nationalities  are  less  backward. 
By  means  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  the 
journey  from  London  to  Chemulpo  can  now  be 
accomplished  within  twenty-one  days.  When  the 
Seoul-Fusan  Railway  is  flnished,  communication 
between  the  East  and  the  West  will  be  still 
further  facilitated.  It  is  intended  that  less  than 
two  days  shall  sufiice  for  the  connection  between 
Chemulpo  and  Tokio.  Meanwhile  the  service  of 
the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway  Company’s  steamers 
between  Port  Arthur,  Dalny,  and  Chemulpo  has 

21 


KOREA 


been  accelerated.  In  addition,  also,  imposing  new 
offices  have  been  erected  at  the  port.  It  is  much 
to  be  regretted  that  there  is  no  regular  service  of 
British  steamers  to  the  ports  of  Korea.  In  singular 
contrast  to  the  apathy  of  British  steamship  com- 
panies is  the  action  of  the  Hamburg-America 
Company,  which  has  now  arranged  for  the  periodic 
visits  of  its  steamers  to  Chemulpo.  From  a com- 
mercial standpoint  the  port  has  become  an  impor- 
tant distributing  centre.  Foreign  trade  with  the 
capital  and  its  environs  passes  through  it,  and  the 
administrative  officers  of  the  more  important  gold- 
mining concessions,  of  which  there  are  now  four, 
American,  Japanese,  French,  and  British,  have 
settled  there.  A cigarette  factory,  supported  by 
the  government,  is  now  in  operation  in  the  port. 


22 


CHAPTER  III 


A CITY  OF  PEACE 

The  situation  in  which  Seoul  lies  is  enchanting. 
High  hills  and  mountains  rise  close  to  the 
city,  their  sides  rough,  rugged,  and  bleak, 
save  where  black  patches  of  bushes  and  trees 
struggle  for  existence.  The  hollows  within  this 
rampart  of  hills,  and  beyond  the  walls,  are  fresh  and 
verdant.  Small  rice-fields,  with  clusters  of  thatched 
hovels  in  their  midst,  stretch  between  the  capital 
and  the  port  at  Chemulpo.  The  atmosphere  is 
clear;  the  air  is  sweet;  the  city  is  neat  and  orderly. 
It  is  possible,  moreover,  to  live  with  great  comfort 
in  the  three-storied  brick  structure,  which,  from 
a pretty  collection  of  Korean  buildings,  nestling 
beneath  the  city  wall,  has  been  converted  into  the 
Station  Hotel. 

There  is  but  one  wall  round  Seoul.  It  is  neither 
so  high  nor  so  massive  as  the  wall  of  Pekin;  yet  the 
situation  of  the  city  gains  so  much  in  beauty  from 
the  enclosing  mountains,  that  it  seems  to  be  much 
the  more  picturesque.  If  the  capital  of  Korea  is 
more  charmingly  situated  than  the  capital  of  China, 
the  wall  of  Seoul  is  reminiscent  of  the  walls  of  the 
Nankow  Pass  in  the  superb  disdain  with  which  it 
clings  to  the  edges  of  the  mountains,  climbing  the 

23 


KOREA 


most  outlandish  places  in  the  course  of  its  almost 
purposeless  meanderings.  It  extends  beyond  the 
lofty  crests  of  Peuk-an  and  across  the  splendid  and 
isolated  peak  of  Nan-sam,  enclosing  a forest  in  one 
direction,  a vacant  and  soulless  plain  in  another, 
dropping  here  into  a ravine,  to  emerge  again  a 
few  hundred  feet  higher  on  the  mountain  slopes. 
The  wall  is  in  good  preservation.  In  places  it  is  a 
rampart  of  mud  faced  with  masonry;  more  generally 
it  is  a solid  structure  of  stone,  fourteen  miles  in 
circumference,  twenty-five  to  forty  feet  in  height, 
battlemented  along  its  entire  length  and  pierced  by 
eight  arches  of  stone.  The  arches  serve  as  gate- 
ways; they  are  crowned  with  high  tiled  towers,  the 
gables  of  which  curve  in  the  fashion  of  China. 

Within  the  radius  of  these  stone  walls,  the  city 
spreads  itself  across  a plain,  or  high  on  the  moun- 
tain side,  within  the  snug  shelter  of  some  hollow^ 
enjoys  a pleasant,  cool,  and  comfortable  seclusion. 
Within  its  metropolitan  area  there  are  changes  of 
scenery  which  would  delight  the  most  weary  sight- 
seer. Beyond  these  limits,  the  appearance  and 
character  of  the  country  is  refreshing,  and  is  without 
that  monotonous  dead-level  stretch  of  plain,  which, 
reaching  to  the  walls  of  Pekin,  detracts  so  greatly 
from  the  position  of  that  capital.  Within  this 
broader  vista  there  are  hills  and  wooded  valleys. 
Villages  rest  beneath  the  grey,  cool  shadows  of  the 
bush.  Upon  the  hills  lie  many  stately  tombs, 
fringes  of  trees  shielding  them  from  the  rush  of  the 
winds.  There  are  pretty  walks  or  rides  in  every 

24 


A CITY  OF  PEACE 


quarter,  and  there  is  no  fear  of  molestation.  Every- 
where it  is  peaceful;  foreigners  pass  unnoticed  by 
the  peasants,  who,  lazily  scratching  the  surface  of 
their  fields,  or  ploughing  in  the  water  of  their  rice 
plots  with  stately  bulls,  occupy  their  time  with  gentle 
industry.  It  is  more  by  reason  of  a bountiful 
nature  that  has  endowed  their  land  with  fertility, 
than  by  careful  management  or  expenditure  of  energy 
that  it  serves  their  purpose. 

A few  years  ago  it  was  thought  that  the  glory  of 
the  ancient  city  had  departed.  Indeed,  the  extreme 
state  of  neglect  into  which  the  capital  had  fallen 
gave  some  justification  for  this  opinion.  Now, 
however,  the  prospect  is  suggestive  of  prosperity. 
The  old  order  is  giving  way  to  the  new.  So  quickly 
has  the  population  learned  to  appreciate  the  results 
of  foreign  intercourse  that,  in  a few  more  years, 
it  will  be  difficult  to  find  in  Seoul  any  remaining 
link  with  the  capital  of  yore.  The  changes  have 
been  somewhat  radical.  The  introduction  of  teleg- 
raphy has  made  it  unnecessary  to  signal  nightly  the 
safety  of  the  kingdom  by  beacons  from  the  crests 
of  the  mountains.  The  gates  are  no  longer  closed 
at  night;  no  more  does  the  evening  bell  clang  sono- 
rously throughout  the  city  at  sunset,  and  the  runners 
before  the  chairs  of  the  officials  have  for  some  time 
ceased  to  announce  in  strident  voices  the  passing 
of  their  masters.  Improvements,  which  have  been 
wrought  also  in  the  conditions  of  the  city — in  its 
streets  and  houses,  in  its  sanitary  measures  and  in 
its  methods  of  communication  — have  replaced  these 

25 


KOREA 


ancient  customs.  An  excellent  and  rapid  train  runs 
from  Chemulpo;  electric  trams  afford  quick  transit 
within  and  beyond  the  capital;  even  electric  lights 
illuminate  by  night  some  parts  of  the  chief  city  of 
the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Moreover,  an  aqueduct  is 
mentioned;  the  police  force  has  been  reorganised; 
drains  have  come  and  evil  odours  have  fled. 

The  period  which  has  passed  since  the  country  was 
opened  to  foreign  trade  has  given  the  inhabitants 
time  to  become  accustomed  to  the  peculiar  differ- 
ences which  distinguish  foreigners.  It  has  afforded 
Koreans  countless  opportunities  to  select  for  them- 
selves such  institutions  as  may  be  calculated  to  pro- 
mote their  own  welfare,  and  to  provide  at  the  same 
time  compensating  advantages  for  their  departure 
from  tradition.  Not  only  by  the  construction  of 
an  electric  tramway,  the  provision  of  long-distance 
telephones  and  telegraphs,  the  installation  of  electric 
light,  a general  renovation  of  its  thoroughfares  and 
its  buildings,  and  the  improvement  of  its  system  of 
drainage,  does  the  capital  of  Korea  give  tokens  of 
the  spirit  which  is  at  work  amongst  its  inhabitants. 
Reforms  in  education  have  also  taken  place;  schools 
and  hospitals  have  been  opened;  banks,  foreign 
shops,  and  agencies  have  sprung  up;  a factory  for 
the  manufacture  of  porcelain  ware  is  in  operation; 
and  the  number  and  variety  of  the  religions  with 
which  foreign  missionaries  are  wooing  the  people 
are  as  amazing  and  complex  as  in  China.  There 
will  be  no  absence  in  the  future  of  those  soothing 
conjeetures  from  which  the  consolations  of  religion 

26 


A CITY  OF  PEACE 

may  be  derived.  The  conduct  of  educational  affairs 
is  arranged  upon  a basis  which  now  gives  every 
facility  for  the  study  of  foreign  subjects.  Special 
schools  for  foreign  languages,  conducted  by  the 
government  under  the  supervision  of  foreign 
teachers,  have  been  instituted.  Indeed,  most  strik- 
ing changes  have  been  made  in  the  curriculum  of 
the  common  schools  of  the  city.  Mathematics, 
geography,  history,  besides  foreign  languages,  are 
all  subjects  in  the  courses  of  these  establishments, 
and,  only  lately,  a special  School  of  Survey,  under 
foreign  direction,  has  been  opened.  The  enlighten- 
ment which  is  thus  spreading  throughout  the  lower 
classes  cannot  fail  to  secure  some  eventual  modifi- 
cation of  the  views  and  sentiments  by  which  the 
upper  classes  regard  the  progress  of  the  country.  As 
a sign  of  the  times,  it  is  worthy  to  note  that  several 
native  newspapers  have  been  started;  while  the 
increase  of  business  has  created  the  necessity  for 
improved  facilities  in  financial  transactions,  a devel- 
opment which  has  appealed  not  only  to  the  Dai 
Ichi  Ginko.  The  Russo-Chinese  Bank  is  proposing 
to  contend  with  this  Japanese  financial  house.  The 
establishment  at  Chemulpo  of  a branch  of  the  Rus- 
sian Bank  is  contemplated,  from  whence  will  come 
an  issue  of  rouble  notes  to  compete  with  the  various 
denominations  of  the  Japanese  Bank.  Moreover, 
the  government  is  preparing  to  erect  a large  building 
in  foreign  style  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  to  be  used 
as  the  premises  of  the  Central  Bank  of  Korea.  It 
will  be  a three-storied  building,  and  it  is  intended 

27 


KOREA 


to  establish  branches  in  all  the  thirteen  provinces 
of  the  empire.  Its  chief  aim  is  to  facilitate  the 
transfer  of  government  moneys,  the  transport  of 
which  has  always  been  a severe  tax  upon  the  gov- 
ernment. It  will,  however,  engage  in  general  bank- 
ing business,  and  for  this  purpose  Yi  Yong-ik,  the 
president  of  the  Central  Bank,  is  preparing  at  the 
government  mint  one,  five,  ten,  and  one  hundred 
dollar  bills  for  issue  by  it. 

Old  Seoul,  with  its  festering  alleys,  its  winter 
accumulations  of  every  species  of  filth,  its  plastering 
mud  and  penetrating  foulness,  has  almost  totally 
vanished  from  within  the  walls  of  the  capital.  The 
streets  are  magnificent,  spacious,  clean,  admirably 
made  and  well  drained.  The  narrow,  dirty  lanes 
have  been  widened;  gutters  have  been  covered,  and 
roadways  broadened;  until,  with  its  trains,  its  cars, 
and  its  lights,  its  miles  of  telegraph  lines,  its  Railway 
Station  Hotel,  brick  houses  and  glass  windows, 
Seoul  is  within  measurable  distance  of  becoming 
the  brightest,  most  interesting,  and  cleanest  city  in 
the  East.  It  is  still  not  one  whit  Europeanised, 
for  the  picturesqueness  of  the  purely  Korean  prin- 
ciples and  standards  of  architecture  has  been  relig- 
iously maintained,  and  is  to  be  observed  in  all 
future  improvements. 

The  shops  still  cling  to  the  sides  of  the  drains;  the 
jewellers’  shops  hang  above  one  of  the  main  sewers 
of  the  city;  the  cabinet  and  table-makers  occupy 
both  sides  of  an  important  thoroughfare,  their  pre- 
cious furniture  half  in  and  half  out  of  filthy  gutters. 

28 


A CITY  OF  PEACE 


A Korean  cabinet  is  a thing  of  great  beauty.  It  is 
embossed  with  brass  plates  and  studded  with  brass 
nails,  very  massive,  well  dovetailed,  altogether 
superior  in  design  and  finish.  The  work  of  the 
jewellers  is  crude  and  unattractive,  although  indi- 
vidual pieces  may  reveal  some  artistic  conception. 
In  the  main  the  ornaments  include  silver  bangles, 
hairpins  and  earrings,  with  a variety  of  objects 
suitable  for  the  decoration  of  the  hair.  The  grain 
merchants  and  the  vegetable  dealers  conduct  their 
business  in  the  road.  The  native  merchant  loves 
to  encroach  upon  the  public  thoroughfares  whenever 
possible.  Once  off  the  main  streets  of  the  city,  the 
side  alleys  are  completely  blocked  to  traflSc  because 
of  the  predilection  of  the  shopkeepers  upon  either 
side  of  the  little  passages  to  push  their  wares  promi- 
nently into  the  roadway.  The  business  of  butcher- 
ing is  in  Korea  the  most  degraded  of  all  trades.  It 
is  beyond  even  the  acceptance  and  recognition  of  the 
most  humble  orders  of  the  community.  The  meat 
shops  are  unpleasantly  near  the  main  drains. 


29 


CHAPTER  IV 


COSTUME,  MANNERS  AND  MORALS 

The  distinction  in  the  costumes  of  the  different 
classes  is  evinced  perhaps  by  the  difference 
in  their  prices.  The  dress  of  a noble  costs 
several  hundred  dollars.  It  is  made  from  the  finest 
silk  lawn  which  can  be  woven  upon  the  native 
looms.  It  is  exceedingly  costly,  of  a very  delicate 
texture,  and  cream  colour.  It  is  ample  in  its  dimen- 
sions and  sufficiently  enveloping  to  suggest  a bath 
robe.  It  is  held  in  place  by  two  large  amber 
buttons  placed  well  over  upon  the  right  breast.  A 
silken  girdle  of  mauve  cord  encircles  the  body  below 
the  arm-pits.  The  costume  of  any  one  individual 
may  comprise  a succession  of  these  silken  coats  of 
cream  silk  lawn,  or  white  silk  lawn,  in  spotless  con- 
dition, with  an  outer  garment  of  blue  silk  lawn.  The 
movement  of  a number  of  these  people  dressed  in 
similar  style  is  like  the  rustle  of  a breeze  in  a forest 
of  leaves.  The  dress  of  the  less  exalted  is  no  less 
striking  in  its  unblemished  purity.  It  costs  but  a 
few  dollars.  It  is  made  from  grass  lawn  of  varying 
degrees  of  texture  or  of  plain  stout  calico.  It  is 
first  washed,  then  pounded  with  hea\y  sticks  upon 
stones,  and,  after  being  dried,  beaten  again  upon  a 
stock  until  it  has  taken  a brilliant  polish.  This 

30 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 


is  the  sole  occupation  of  the  women  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  through  many  hours  of  the  day  and 
night  the  regular  and  rhythmic  beating  of  these 
laundry  sticks  may  be  heard. 

The  costume  of  the  women  is  in  some  respects 
peculiar  to  the  capital.  The  upper  garment  con- 
sists of  an  apology  for  a zouave  jacket  in  white  or 
cream  material,  which  may  be  of  silk  lawn,  lawn  or 
calico.  A few  inches  below  this  begins  a white 
petticoat,  baggy  as  a sail,  touching  the  ground  upon 
all  sides,  and  attached  to  a broad  band.  Between 
the  two  there  is  nothing  except  the  bare  skin,  the 
breasts  being  fully  exposed.  It  is  not  an  agreeable 
spectacle,  as  the  women  seen  abroad  are  usually 
aged  or  infirm.  At  all  times,  as  if  to  emphasise 
their  fading  charms,  they  wear  the  chang-ot,  a thin, 
green  silk  cloak,  almost  peculiar  to  the  capital  and 
used  by  the  women  to  veil  their  faces  in  passing 
through  the  public  streets.  Upon  the  sight  of  man, 
they  clutch  it  beneath  the  eyes.  The  neck  of  the 
garment  is  pulled  over  the  head  of  the  wearer,  and 
the  long  wide  sleeves  fall  from  her  ears.  The 
effect  of  the  contrast  between  the  hidden  face  and 
the  naked  breast  is  exceptionally  ludicrous.  When 
employed  correctly  only  one  eye,  a suggestion  of 
the  cheek,  and  a glimpse  of  the  temple  and  forehead 
are  revealed.  It  is,  however,  almost  unnecessary, 
since  in  the  case  of  the  great  majority  of  women, 
their  sole  charm  is  the  possible  beauty  that  the 
chang-ot  may  conceal.  They  wear  no  other  head- 
covering. For  ordinary  occasions  they  dress  their 

31 


KOREA 


hair  quite  simply  at  the  nape  of  the  neck,  in  a fashion 
not  unlike  that  which  Mrs.  Langtry  introduced. 

The  head-dress  of  the  men  shows  great  variety, 
much  as  their  costume  possesses  a distinctive  char- 
acter. When  they  are  in  mourning,  the  first  stage 
demands  a hat  as  large  as  a diminutive  open  clothes- 
basket.  It  is  four  feet  in  circumference  and  com- 
pletely conceals  the  face,  which  is  hidden  further 
by  a piece  of  coarse  lawn  stretched  upon  two  sticks, 
and  held  just  below  the  eyes.  In  this  stage  noth- 
ing whatever  of  the  face  may  be  seen.  The  second 
stage  is  denoted  by  the  removal  of  the  screen.  The 
third  period  is  manifested  by  the  replacement  of 
the  inverted  basket  by  the  customary  head-gear, 
made  in  straw  colour.  The  ordinary  head-covering 
takes  the  shape  of  the  high-crowned  hat  worn  by 
Welsh  women,  with  a broad  brim,  made  in  black 
gauze  upon  a bamboo  frame.  It  is  held  in  place 
by  a chain  beneath  the  chin  or  a string  of  pieces 
of  bamboo,  between  each  of  wLich  small  amber 
beads  are  inserted.  There  are  a variety  of  indoor 
and  ceremonial  caps  and  bandeaux  which  are  worn 
by  the  upper  and  middle  classes. 

The  hair  is  dressed  differently  by  single  and  mar- 
ried men.  If  unmarried,  they  adopt  the  queue; 
when  married,  they  put  up  their  hair  and  twist  it 
into  a conical  mass  upon  their  heads,  keeping  it  in 
place  by  a woven  horsehair  band,  which  completely 
encircles  the  forehead  and  base  of  the  skull.  A few, 
influenced  by  Western  manners,  have  cropped  their 
hair.  This  is  specially  noticeable  among  the  sol- 

32 


• 1 . 


NATIVE  KOREAN  WOMEN  WASHING  CLOTHES 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 

diers  on  duty  in  the  city,  while,  in  compliance  with 
the  orders  of  the  emperor,  all  military  and  civil 
ofl&cials  in  the  capital  have  adopted  the  foreign 
style.  Boys  and  girls,  the  queerest  and  most  dirty 
little  brats,  are  permitted  up  to  a certain  age  to  roam 
about  the  streets,  to  play  in  the  gutters,  and  about 
the  sewage  pits  in  a state  of  complete  nudity  — a 
form  of  economy  which  is  common  throughout  the 
Far  East.  The  boys  quickly  drift  into  clothes  and 
occupations  of  a kind.  The  girls  of  the  poorer 
orders  are  sold  as  domestic  slaves  and  become 
attached  to  the  households  of  the  upper  classes. 
From  their  subsequent  appearance  in  the  street, 
when  they  run  beside  the  chairs  of  their  mistresses, 
it  is  quite  evident  that  they  are  taught  to  be 
clean  and  even  dainty  in  their  appearance.  At 
this  youthful  age  they  are  quaint  and  healthy 
looking  children.  The  conditions  under  which  they 
live,  however,  soon  produce  premature  exhaus- 
tion. 

Despite  the  introduction  of  certain  reforms,  there 
is  still  much  of  the  old  world  about  Seoul,  many 
relics  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom.  Women  are  still 
most  carefully  secluded.  The  custom,  which  allows 
those  of  the  upper  classes  to  take  outdoor  exercise 
only  at  night,  is  observed.  Men  are,  however,  no 
longer  excluded  from  the  streets  at  such  hours. 
The  spectacle  of  these  white  spectres  of  the  night, 
flitting  from  point  to  point,  their  footsteps  lighted 
by  the  rays  of  the  lantern  which  their  girl-slaves 
carry  before  them,  is  as  remarkable  as  the  appear- 

33 


KOREA 


ance  of  Seoul  by  daylight,  with  its  moving  masses 
all  garmented  in  white. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Hermit  Kingdom  are 
peculiarly  proficient  in  the  art  of  doing  nothing 
gracefully.  There  is,  therefore,  infinite  charm  and 
variety  in  the  daily  life  of  Korea.  The  natives  take 
their  pleasures  passively,  and  their  constitutional 
incapacity  makes  it  appear  as  if  there  were  little  to 
do  but  to  indulge  in  a gentle  stroll  in  the  brilliant 
sunshine,  or  to  sit  cross-legged  within  the  shade 
of  their  houses.  Inaction  becomes  them;  nothing 
could  be  more  unsuited  to  the  character  of  their 
peculiar  costume  than  vigorous  movement.  The 
stolid  dignity  of  their  appearance  and  their  stately 
demeanour  adds  vastly  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the 
street  scenes.  The  white-coated,  white-trousered, 
white-socked,  slowly  striding  population  is  irresist- 
ibly fascinating  to  the  eye.  The  women  are  no 
less  interesting  than  the  men.  The  unique  fashion 
of  their  dress,  and  its  general  dissimilarity  to  any 
other  form  of  feminine  garb  the  world  has  ever 
known,  renders  it  suflSciently  characteristic  of  the 
vagaries  of  the  feminine  mind  to  be  attractive. 

Women  do  not  appear  very  much  in  the  streets 
during  daylight.  The  degree  of  their  seclusion 
depends  upon  the  position  which  they  fill  in  society. 
In  a general  way  the  social  barriers  which  divide 
everywhere  the  three  classes  are  well  defined  here. 
The  yang-ban  or  noble  is,  of  course,  the  ruling  class. 
The  upper-class  woman  lives  rather  like  a woman 
in  a zenana;  from  the  age  of  twelve  she  is  visible 

34 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 

only  to  the  people  of  her  household  and  to  her  imme- 
diate relatives.  She  is  married  young,  and  thence- 
forth her  acquaintances  among  men  are  restricted 
solely  to  within  the  fifth  degree  of  cousinship.  She 
may  visit  her  friends,  being  usually  carried  by  four 
bearers  in  a screened  chair.  She  seldom  walks,  but 
should  she  do  so  her  face  is  invariably  veiled  in  the 
folds  of  a chang-ot.  Few  restrictions  are  imposed 
upon  the  women  of  the  middle  class  as  to  their 
appearance  in  the  streets,  nor  are  they  so  closely 
secluded  in  the  house  as  their  aristocratic  sisters; 
their  faces  are,  however,  veiled.  The  chang-ot  is 
by  no  means  so  complete  a medium  of  concealment 
as  the  veil  of  Turkey.  Moreover,  it  is  often  cast 
aside  in  old  age.  The  dancing-girls,  slaves,  nuns, 
and  prostitutes,  all  included  in  the  lowest  class, 
are  forbidden  to  wear  the  chang-ot.  Women  doc- 
tors, too,  dispense  with  it,  though  only  women  of 
the  highest  birth  are  allowed  to  practise  medicine. 

In  a general  way,  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
Korean  woman  is  motherhood.  Much  scandal  arises 
if  a girl  attains  her  twentieth  year  without  having 
married,  while  no  better  excuse  exists  for  divorce 
than  sterility.  In  respect  of  marriage,  however, 
the  wife  is  expected  to  supplement  the  fortune  of 
her  husband  and  to  contribute  to  the  finances  of 
the  household.  A\lien  women  of  the  upper  classes 
wish  to  embark  in  business,  certain  careers,  other 
than  that  of  medicine,  are  open  to  them.  They  may 
cultivate  the  silk-worm,  start  an  apiary,  weave 
straw  shoes,  conduct  a wine-shop,  or  assume  the 

35 


KOREA 


position  of  a teacher.  They  may  undertake  neither 
the  manufacture  of  lace  and  cloth,  nor  the  sale  of 
fruit  and  vegetables.  A descent  in  the  social  scale 
increases  the  number  and  variety  of  the  callings  which 
are  open  to  women.  Those  of  the  middle  class  may 
engage  in  all  the  occupations  of  the  upper  classes, 
with  the  exception  of  medicine  and  teaching.  They 
may  become  concubines,  act  as  cooks,  go  out  as 
wet  nurses,  or  fill  posts  in  the  palace.  They  may 
keep  any  description  of  shop,  tavern,  or  hotel;  they 
possess  certain  fishing  privileges,  which  allow  them 
to  take  clams,  cuttle-fish,  and  heches  de  mer.  They 
may  make  every  kind  of  boot  and  shoe.  They  may 
knit  fishing-nets,  and  fashion,  tobacco-pouches. 

If  some  little  respect  be  accorded  to  women  of  the 
middle  classes,  those  of  the  lower  status  are  held  in 
contempt.  Of  the  occupations  open  to  women  of 
the  middle  classes,  there  are  two  in  which  women 
of  humble  origin  cannot  engage.  They  are  ineli- 
gible for  any  position  in  the  palace:  they  may  not 
manufacture  tobacco-pouches.  They  may  become 
sorceresses,  jugglers,  tumblers,  contortionists,  dan- 
cing-girls and  courtesans.  There  is  wide  distinction 
between  the  members  of  the  two  oldest  professions 
which  the  world  has  ever  known:  the  dancing-girl 
usually  closes  her  career  by  becoming  the  con- 
cubine of  some  wealthy  noble;  the  courtesan  does 
not  close  her  career  at  all. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  admire  the  activity  and 
energy  of  the  Korean  w’oman.  Despite  the  con- 
tempt with  which  she  is  treated,  she  is  the  great 

36 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 

economic  factor  in  the  household  and  in  the  life  of 
the  nation.  Force  of  circumstance  has  made  her 
the  beast  of  burden.  She  works  that  her  superior 
lord  and  master  may  dwell  in  idleness,  comparative 
luxury,  and  peace.  In  spite  of  the  depressing  and 
baneful  effects  of  this  absurd  dogma  of  inferiority, 
and  in  contradiction  of  centuries  of  theory  and  phi- 
losophy, her  diligent  integrity  is  more  evident  in  the 
national  life  than  her  husband’s  industry.  She  is 
exceptionally  active,  vigorous  in  character,  resource- 
ful in  emergency,  superstitious,  persevering,  indom- 
itable, courageous,  and  devoted.  Among  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  she  is  the  tailor  and  the  laundress 
of  the  nation.  She  dpes  the  work  of  a man  in  the 
household  and  of  a beast  in  the  fields;  she  cooks  and 
sews;  she  washes  and  irons;  she  organises  and  car- 
ries on  a business,  or  tills  and  cultivates  a farm.  In 
the  face  of  every  adversity,  and  in  those  times  of 
trial  and  distress  in  which  her  liege  and  lazy  lord 
utterly  and  hopelessly  collapses,  it  is  she  who  holds 
the  wretched,  ramshackle  home  together.  Under  the 
previous  dynasty,  the  sphere  of  the  women  of  Korea 
was  less  restricted.  There  was  no  law  of  seclusion; 
the  sex  enjoyed  greater  public  freedom.  In  its  clos- 
ing decades,  however,  the  tone  of  society  lowered, 
and  women  became  the  special  objects  of  violence. 
Buddhist  priests  were  guilty  of  widespread  debauch- 
ery; conjugal  infidelity  was  a pastime;  rape  became 
the  fashion.  The  present  dynasty  endeavoured  to 
check  these  evils  by  ordaining  and  promoting  the 
isolation  and  greater  subjection  of  the  sex.  Vice 

37 


KOREA 


and  immorality  had  been  so  long  and  so  promiscu- 
ously practised,  however,  that  already  men  had 
begun  to  keep  their  women  in  seclusion  of  their 
own  accord.  If  they  respected  them  to  some  extent, 
they  were  wholly  doubtful  of  one  another.  Distrust 
and  suspicion  were  thus  the  pre-eminent  causes  of 
this  immuring  of  the  women,  the  system  developing 
of  itself,  as  the  male  Koreans  learnt  to  dread  the 
evil  propensities  of  their  own  sex.  It  is  possible 
that  the  women  find,  in  that  protection  which  is 
now  accorded  them,  some  little  compensation  for 
the  drudgery  and  interminable  hard  work  that  is 
their  portion. 

The  system  of  slavery  among  the  Koreans  is  con- 
fined, at  present,  to  the  possession  of  female  slaves. 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  great  invasion  of  Korea  by 
the  Japanese  armies  under  Hideyoshi,  in  1592,  both 
male  and  female  slaves  were  permitted.  The  loss 
of  men  in  that  w^ar  was  so  great  that,  upon  its  con- 
clusion, a law  was  promulgated  which  forbade  the 
bondage  of  males.  There  is,  however,  the  sang-no 
(slave  boy),  who  renders  certain  services  only, 
and  receives  his  food  and  clothes  in  compensation. 
The  position  of  the  sang-no  is  more  humble  than 
that  fiilled  by  the  paid  servant  and  superior  to  that 
of  the  slave  proper.  He  is  bound  by  no  agreement 
and  is  free  to  leave. 

The  duties  of  a slave  comprise  the  rough  work  of 
the  house.  She  attends  to  the  w^ashing  — an  exact- 
ing and  continuous  labor  in  a Korean  household; 
carries  water  from  the  w^ell,  assists  with  the  cooking, 

38 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 


undertakes  the  marketing,  and  runs  errands.  She  is 
not  allowed  to  participate  in  any  duties  of  a superior 
character;  her  place  is  in  the  kitchen  or  in  the  yard, 
and  she  cannot  become  either  a lady’s  maid  or  a 
favoured  servant  of  any  degree.  In  the  fulness  of 
time  she  may  figure  in  the  funeral  procession  of  her 
master. 

There  are  four  ways  by  which  the  Korean  woman 
may  become  a slave.  She  may  give  herself  into 
slavery,  voluntarily,  in  exchange  for  food,  clothes, 
and  shelter  through  her  abject  poverty.  The  woman 
who  becomes  a slave  in  this  way  cannot  buy  back 
her  freedom.  She  has  fewer  rights  than  the  slave 
who  is  bought  or  who  sells  herself.  The  daughter  of 
any  slave  who  dies  in  service  continues  in  slavery. 
In  the  event  of  the  marriage  of  her  mistress  such  a 
slave  ranks  as  a part  of  the  matrimonial  dot.  A 
woman  may  be  reduced  to  slavery  by  the  treason- 
able misdemeanours  of  a relative.  The  family  of  a 
man  convicted  of  treason  becomes  the  property  of 
the  government,  the  women  being  allotted  to  high 
officials.  They  are  usually  liberated.  Again,  a 
woman  may  submit  herself  to  the  approval  of  a 
prospective  employer.  If  she  is  found  satisfactory 
and  is  well  recommended,  her  services  may  realise 
between  forty,  fifty,  or  one  hundred  thousand  cash. 
When  payment  has  been  made,  she  gives  a deed  of 
her  own  person  to  her  purchaser,  imprinting  the  out- 
line of  her  hand  upon  the  document,  in  place  of  a 
seal,  and  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  easy  means 
of  identification.  Although  this  transaction  does 

39 


KOREA 

not  receive  the  cognisance  of  the  government,  the 
contract  is  binding. 

As  the  law  provides  that  the  daughter  of  a slave 
must  take  the  place  of  her  parent,  should  she  die,  it 
is  plainly  in  the  interests  of  the  owner  to  promote 
the  marriage  of  his  slaves.  Slaves  who  receive  com- 
pensation for  their  services  are  entitled  to  marry 
whom  they  please;  quarters  are  provided  for  the 
couple.  The  master  of  the  house,  however,  has  no 
claim  upon  the  services  of  the  husband.  The  slave 
who  voluntarily  assigns  herself  to  slavery  and  re- 
ceives no  price  for  her  services  may  not  marry  with- 
out consent.  In  these  cases  it  is  not  an  unusual 
custom  for  the  master  to  restore  her  liberty  in  the 
course  of  a few  years. 

Hitherto,  the  position  of  the  Korean  woman  has 
been  so  humble  that  her  education  has  been  unneces- 
sary. Save  among  those  who  belong  to  the  less 
reputable  classes,  the  literary  and  artistic  faculties 
are  left  uncultivated.  Among  the  courtesans,  how- 
ever, the  mental  abilities  are  trained  and  developed 
with  a view  to  making  them  brilliant  and  enter- 
taining companions.  The  one  sign  of  their  profes- 
sion is  the  culture,  the  charm,  and  the  scope  of  their 
attainments.  These  “leaves  of  sunlight,”  a feature 
of  public  life  in  Korea,  stand  apart  in  a class  of  their 
own.  They  are  called  gisaing,  and  correspond  to 
the  geisha  of  Japan;  the  duties,  environments,  and 
mode  of  existence  of  the  two  are  almost  identical. 
Officially,  they  are  attached  to  a department  of 
government  and  are  controlled  by  a bureau  of  their 

40 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 

own,  in  common  with  the  court  musicians.  They  are 
supported  from  the  national  treasury,  and  they  are 
in  evidence  at  official  dinners  and  all  palace  enter- 
tainments. They  read  and  recite;  they  dance  and 
sing;  they  become  accomplished  artists  and  musi- 
cians. They  dress  with  exceptional  taste;  they  move 
with  exceeding  grace;  they  are  delicate  in  appear- 
ance, very  frail  and  very  human,  very  tender, 
sympathetic,  and  imaginative.  By  their  artistic 
and  intellectual  endowment,  the  dancing-girls,  iron- 
ically enough,  are  debarred  from  the  positions  for 
which  their  talents  so  peculiarly  fit  them.  They 
may  move  through,  and  as  a fact  do  live  in,  the  high- 
est society.  They  are  met  at  the  houses  of  the  most 
distinguished;  they  may  be  seleeted  as  the  concu- 
bines of  the  Emperor,  become  the  femmes  d'amour 
of  a prince,  the  puppets  of  the  noble.  A man  of 
breeding  may  not  marry  them,  however,  although 
they  typify  everything  that  is  brightest,  liveliest, 
and  most  beautiful.  Amongst  their  own  sex,  their 
reputation  is  in  accordance  with  their  standard 
of  morality,  a distinction  being  made  between  those 
whose  careers  are  embellished  with  the  quasi  chastity 
of  a concubine,  and  those  who  are  identified  with 
the  more  pretentious  display  of  the  mere  prosti- 
tute. 

In  the  hope  that  their  children  may  achieve  that 
success  which  will  ensure  their  support  in  their  old 
age,  parents,  when  stricken  with  poverty,  dedicate 
their  daughters  to  the  career  of  a gisaing,  much  as 
they  apprentice  their  sons  to  that  of  a eunuch.  The 

41 


KOREA 


girls  are  chosen  for  the  perfect  regularity  of  their 
features.  Their  freedom  from  blemish,  when  first 
selected,  is  essential.  They  are  usually  pretty, 
elegant,  and  dainty.  It  is  almost  certain  that  they 
are  the  prettiest  women  in  Korea,  and,  although  the 
order  is  extensive  and  the  class  is  gathered  from  all 
over  the  kingdom,  the  most  beautiful  and  accom- 
plished gisaing  come  from  Pyong-an.  The  arts 
and  graces  in  which  they  are  so  carefully  educated, 
procure  their  elevation  to  positions  in  the  house- 
holds of  their  protectors,  superior  to  that  which  is 
held  by  the  legal  wife.  As  a consequence,  Korean 
folk-lore  abounds  with  stories  of  the  strife  and 
wifely  lamentations  arising  from  the  ardent  and 
prolonged  devotion  of  husbands  to  girls  whom  fate 
prevents  their  taking  to  a closer  union.  The  women 
are  light  of  stature,  with  diminutive,  pretty  feet, 
and  graceful,  shapely  hands.  They  are  quiet  and 
unassuming  in  their  manner.  Their  smile  is  bright; 
their  deportment  modest,  their  appearance  winsome. 
They  wear  upon  state  occasions  voluminous,  silk- 
gauze  skirts  of  variegated  hues;  a diaphanous  silken 
jacket,  with  long  loose  sleeves,  extending  beyond 
the  hands,  protects  the  shoulders;  jewelled  girdles, 
pressing  their  naked  breasts,  sustain  their  draperies. 
An  elaborate,  heavy,  and  artificial  head-dress  of 
black  hair,  twisted  in  plaits  and  decorated  with 
many  silver  ornaments,  is  worn.  The  music  of 
the  dance  is  plaintive  and  the  song  of  the  dancer 
somewhat  melancholy.  Many  movements  are  exe- 
cuted in  stockinged  feet;  the  dances  are  quite  free 

42 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 


from  indelicacy  and  suggestiveness.  Indeed,  sev- 
eral are  curiously  pleasing. 

Upon  one  occasion,  Yi-cha-sun,  the  brother  of  the 
Emperor,  invited  me  to  watch  the  dress  rehearsal  of 
an  approaching  Palace  festival.  Although  this  ex- 
ceptional consideration  was  showm  me  unsolicited, 
I found  it  quite  impossible  to  secure  permission 
to  photograph  the  gliding,  graceful  figures  of  the 
dancers.  WTien  my  chair  deposited  me  at  the  yamen 
the  dance  was  already  in  progress.  The  chairs 
of  the  officials  and  chattering  groups  of  the  ser- 
vants of  the  dancers  filled  the  compound;  soldiers 
of  the  Imperial  Guard  kept  watch  before  the  gates. 
The  air  was  filled  with  the  tremulous  notes  of  the 
pipes  and  viols,  whose  plaintive  screaming  was 
punctuated  with  the  booming  of  drums.  Within  a 
building,  the  walls  of  which  were  open  to  the  air, 
the  rows  of  dancers  were  visible  as  they  swayed 
slowly  and  almost  imperceptibly  with  the  music. 

From  the  dais  where  my  host  w as  sitting  the  dance 
was  radiant  with  colour.  There  were  eighteen  per- 
formers, grouped  in  three  equal  divisions,  and,  as 
the  streaming  sunshine  played  upon  the  shimmering 
surface  of  their  dresses,  the  lithe  and  graceful  fig- 
ures of  the  dancers  floated  in  the  brilliant  reflection 
of  a sea  of  sparkling  light.  The  dance  was  almost 
without  motion  so  slowly  were  its  fantastic  figures 
developed.  Never  once  were  their  arms  dropped 
from  their  horizontal  position,  nor  did  the  size  and 
weight  of  their  head-dresses  appear  to  fatigue  the 
little  women.  Very  slowly,  the  seated  band  gave 

43 


KOREA 


forth  the  air.  Very  slowly,  the  dancers  moved  in 
the  open  space  before  us,  their  arms  upraised,  their 
gauze  and  silken  draperies  clustering  round  them, 
their  hair  piled  high,  and  held  in  its  curious 
shape  by  many  jewelled  and  enamelled  pins,  which 
sparkled  in  the  sunshine.  The  air  was  solenm;  and, 
as  if  the  movement  were  ceremonial,  their  voices 
rose  and  fell  in  a lingering  harmony  of  passionate 
expression.  At  times,  the  three  sets  came  together, 
the  hues  of  the  silken  skirts  blending  in  one  vivid 
blaze  of  barbaric  splendour.  Then,  as  another  move- 
ment succeeded,  the  eighteen  figures  broke  apart 
and,  poised  upon  their  toes,  in  stately  and  measured 
unison  circled  round  the  floor,  their  arms  rising  and 
falling,  their  bodies  bending  and  swaying,  in  dreamy 
undulation. 

The  dance  epitomised  the  poetry  and  grace  of 
human  motion.  The  dainty  attitudes  of  the  per- 
formers had  a gentle  delicacy  which  was  delightful. 
The  long  silken  robes  revealed  a singular  grace  of 
deportment,  and  one  looked  upon  dancers  w’ho  were 
clothed  from  head  to  foot,  not  naked,  brazen,  and 
unashamed,  like  those  of  our  own  burlesque,  with 
infinite  relief  and  infinite  satisfaction.  There  was 
power  and  purpose  in  their  movements;  artistic 
subtlety  in  their  poses.  Their  flowing  robes  empha- 
sised the  simplicity  of  their  gestures;  the  pallor  of 
their  faces  was  unconcealed;  their  glances  were 
timid;  their  manner  modest.  The  strange  eerie 
notes  of  the  curious  instruments  the  fluctuating 
cadence  of  the  song,  the  gliding  motion  of  the  dan- 

44 


MANNERS  AND  MORALS 


cers,  the  dazzling  sheen  of  the  silks,  the  vivid  colours 
of  the  skirts,  the  flush  of  flesh  beneath  the  silken 
shoulder-coats,  appealed  to  one  silently  and  signally, 
stirring  the  emotions  with  an  enthusiasm  which 
was  irrepressible. 

The  fascinating  figures  approached  softly,  smoothly 
sliding;  and,  as  they  glided  slowly  forward,  the  song 
of  the  music  welled  into  passionate  lamentation. 
The  character  of  the  dance  changed.  No  longer 
advancing,  the  dancers  moved  in  time  to  the  beating 
of  the  drums;  rotating  circles  of  colour,  their  arms 
swaying,  their  bodies  swinging  backwards  and  for- 
wards, as  their  retreating  footsteps  took  them  from 
us.  The  little  figures  seemed  unconscious  of  their 
art;  the  musicians  ignorant  of  the  qualities  of  their 
wailing.  Nevertheless,  the  masterly  restraint  of 
the  band,  the  conception,  skill,  and  execution  of  the 
dancers,  made  up  a triumph  of  technique. 

As  the  dance  swept  to  its  climax,  nothing  so 
accentuated  the  admiration  of  the  audience  as  their 
perfect  stillness.  From  the  outer  courts  came  for  a 
brief  instant  the  clatter  of  servants  and  the  screams 
of  angry  stallions.  Threatening  glances  quickly 
hushed  the  slaves,  nothing  breaking  the  magnetism 
of  the  dance  for  long.  The  dance  ended,  it  became 
the  turn  of  others  to  rehearse  their  individual  con- 
tributions, while  those  who  were  now  free  sat  chatting 
with  my  host,  eating  sweets,  some  smoking  cigarettes, 
others  cigars,  and  others  the  long  native  pipe.  Many, 
discarding  their  head-dresses,  lay  upon  their  sitting 
mats,  their  eyes  closed  in  momentary  rest  as  their 

45 


KOREA 


servants  fanned  them.  His  Highness  apparently 
appreciated  the  familiarity  with  which  they  treated 
him.  In  the  enjoyment  and  encouragement  of 
their  little  jokes  he  squeezed  their  cheeks  and  pinched 
their  arms,  as  he  sat  among  them. 


46 


CHAPTER  V 


EDUCATION  AND  CRIME 

UNTIL  the  introduction  of  foreign  methods 
of  education,  and  the  establishment  of 
schools  upon  modern  lines,  no  very  prom- 
ising manifestation  of  intellect  distinguished  the 
Koreans.  Even  now,  a vague  knowledge  of  the 
Chinese  classics,  which  in  rare  instances  only  can  be 
considered  a familiar  acquaintanceship,  sums  up 
the  requirements  of  the  cultured  classes.  The  upper 
classes  of  both  sexes  make  some  pretence  of  under- 
standing the  literature  and  language  of  China;  but 
it  is  very  seldom  that  the  middle  classes  are  able  to 
read  more  than  the  mixed  Chinese-Korean  script 
of  the  native  Press  — in  which  the  grammatical 
construction  is  purely  Korean. 

Despite  the  prevailing  ignorance  of  Chinese,  the 
Mandarin  dialect  of  China  is  considered  the  language 
of  polite  society.  It  is  the  medium  of  official  com- 
munication at  the  Court:  the  majority  of  the  for- 
eigners in  the  service  of  the  Government  have  also 
mastered  its  intricacies.  It  has  been  estimated 
by  Professor  Homer  B.  Hulbert,  whose  elaborate 
researches  in  Korean  and  Chinese  philology  make 
him  a distinguished  authority,  that  only  one  per 
cent,  of  the  women  of  the  upper  class,  who  study 

47 


KOREA 


Chinese,  have  any  practical  knowledge  of  it.  Women 
of  the  middle  and  lower  classes  are  ignorant  of  Chi- 
nese. Again,  the  proportion  of  upper  class  women 
who  can  read  the  Chinese  classics  is  very  small. 
It  is  probable  that,  out  of  an  unselected  assembly  of 
Koreans,  not  more  than  five  per  cent,  would  be 
found  who  could  take  up  a Chinese  work  and  read 
it  as  glibly  as  a similar  gathering  of  English  might 
be  expected  to  read  ordinary  Latin  prose. 

In  relation  to  the  dn-mun,  the  common  script  of 
Korea,  there  is,  however,  no  such  ignorance;  the 
upper  and  middle  classes  study  their  native  wanting 
with  much  intelligence.  The  language  of  Korea 
is  altogether  different  from  that  of  China  and  Japan; 
it  possesses  an  alphabet  of  its  own,  which  at  present 
consists  of  some  twenty-five  letters.  It  has  been 
ascribed  by  certain  Korean  annals  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  a.d.  1447,  when  the  King  of  Korea,  resolv- 
ing to  assert  his  independence  by  abandoning  the 
use  of  Chinese  writing  as  the  official  medium  of 
correspondence,  invented  an  alphabet  to  suit  the 
special  requirements  of  the  vernacular.  Conserva- 
tism proved  too  strong,  however,  and  the  new  script 
was  gradually  relegated  to  the  use  of  the  lower 
classes,  and  of  w'omen  and  children.  There  is  an 
extensive  literature  in  the  vernacular.  It  includes 
translations  from  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  classics; 
historical  works  on  modern  and  mediaeval  Korea, 
books  of  travel  and  hunting,  of  poetry  and  corre- 
spondence, and  a range  of  fiction,  dealing  w ith  those 
phases  of  human  nature  that  are  common  to  mankind. 

48 


EDUCATION  AND  CRIME 


Many  of  these  books  are  regularly  studied  by 
Korean  women,  ignorance  of  their  contents  being 
regarded  with  disdain  by  the  women  of  the  upper 
classes,  and,  in  a less  pronounced  degree,  by  those 
of  the  middle  classes.  The  female  attendants  in 
the  Palace  are  the  readiest  students  and  scholars 
of  the  vernacular,  their  positions  at  Court  requiring 
them  to  prepare  dn-mun  copies  of  Government 
orders,  current  news,  and  general  gossip,  for  Imperial 
use.  Books  in  native  seript  are  readily  purchased 
by  all  eonditions  of  Koreans,  and  taken  out  from 
circulating  libraries.  Many  of  the  works  are  writ- 
ten in  Chinese  and  in  Korean  upon  alternate  pages 
for  those  who  can  read  only  one  or  the  other;  those 
who  are  quite  illiterate  learning  the  more  important 
chapters  by  ear.  A work,  with  which  every  woman 
is  supposed  to  be  intimate,  is  entitled  The  Three 
Principles  of  Conduct,  the  great  divisions  being  (1) 
The  Treatment  of  Parents;  (2)  The  Rearing  of  a 
Family;  (3)  Housekeeping.  Companion  books  with 
this  volume,  and  of  equal  importance  to  Korean 
women,  are  the  Five  Rules  of  Conduct  and  the 
Five  Volumes  of  Primary  Literature,  which,  in 
spirit  and  contents,  are  almost  identical.  They 
deal  with  the  relations  between  (1)  Parent  and 
Child;  (2)  King  and  Subject;  (3)  Husband  and  Wife; 
(4)  Old  and  Young;  (5)  Friend  and  Friend.  They 
contain  also  exhortations  to  virtue  and  learning. 

Apart  from  the  direction  and  scope  of  female 
education  in  Korea,  which  I have  now  suggested, 
the  theoretieal  study  of  the  domestie  arts  is  an  invari- 

49 


KOREA 


able  accompaniment  of  the  more  intricate  studies. 
It  is  supplemented  with  much  actual  experiment. 
As  a consequence,  while  the  education  of  men  of 
certain  rank  is  confined  to  the  books  to  which  they 
are  but  indifferently  attentive,  a wide  range  of  study 
exists  for  women  apart  from  the  writings  and  teach- 
ings of  the  accepted  professors  and  classical  author- 
ities. Ornamental  elegances,  the  tricks  and  traits 
of  our  drawing-room  minxes,  are  ignored  by  the 
gentler  classes,  vocal  music  and  dancing  being  the 
accomplishments  of  dancing-girls  and  demi-mon- 
daines.  The  arts  of  embroidery,  dressmaking,  sew- 
ing, and  weaving  absorb  their  attention  until  they 
have  gone  through  the  gamut  of  domestic  economy. 
Occasionally  women  of  the  upper  class  learn  to 
play  the  kumungo,  an  instrument  some  five  feet 
long  and  one  foot  wide,  bearing  a faint  resemblance  to 
a zither  and  emitting  a melancholy  and  discordant 
wail.  There  is  one  other  stringed  weapon,  the 
nageum,  but  the  awful  screech  of  this  unhappy  viol 
overwhelms  me,  even  in  recollection.  The  usual 
and  most  simple  amusement  for  the  middle  classes 
is  the  gentle,  aimless  stroll,  for  the  purpose  of  “look 
see.”  Swinging,  rope-games,  dice,  dominoes,  and 
dolls  find  some  favour  as  distractions. 

If  some  little  improvement  has  become  notice- 
able in  educational  matters  under  the  enlighten- 
ing influence  of  the  missionaries,  great  fault  must  be 
found  with  the  condition  of  the  law.  It  is,  of  course, 
not  always  possible  to  graft  upon  the  legal  proced- 

50 


EDUCATION  AND  CRIME 


ure  of  one  country  a system  of  administration  which 
works  well  in  another.  Specific  outbursts  of  vio- 
lence, arising  from  identical  causes,  assume  different 
complexions  when  considered  from  the  point  of  view 
of  those  who  are  proceeding  to  institute  reforms. 
It  may  be  submitted,  further,  that  a certain  element 
of  barbarism  in  punishment  is  rendered  necessary 
by  the  conditions  of  some  countries,  imposing  a 
restraint  upon  a population  which  would  scoff  at 
punishment  of  a more  civilised  description.  If 
exception  may  be  taken  to  the  penal  code  of  Korea,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  in  the  Far  East  the  qual- 
ity of  justice  is  not  tempered  with  mercy.  Many 
punishments  are  still  openly  and  frankly  barbarous, 
while  others  are  distinguished  by  their  excep- 
tional severity.  Decapitation,  mutilation,  strangula- 
tion, or  poisoning  are  less  frequent  than  formerly. 

Until  within  quite  recent  years  it  was  the  custom 
of  Korean  law  to  make  the  family  of  the  arch- 
criminal suffer  all  his  penalties  with  him.  They  are 
now  exempted,  and  with  the  reforms  introduced 
during  the  movement  in  1895,  some  attempt  was 
made  to  abolish  practices  opposed  to  the  spirit  of 
progress.  The  table,  which  I append,  shows  the 
punishments  dispensed  for  certain  crimes. 

Treason,  Man.  . . Decapitated,  together  with  male  relatives 
to  the  fifth  degree.  Mother,  wife, 
and  daughter  poisoned  or  reduced  to 
slavery. 

Treason,  Woman.  Poisoned. 

Murder,  Man . . . Decapitated.  Wife  poisoned. 

51 


KOREA 


Murder,  Woman. 
Arson,  Man . . . . 
Arson,  Woman . . 
Theft,  Man  . . . , 


Desecration  of 
graves 

Counterfeiting  . . 


Strangled  or  poisoned. 

Strangled  or  poisoned.  Wife  poisoned. 

Poisoned. 

Strangled,  decapitated,  or  banished.  Wife 
reduced  to  slavery,  confiscation  of  all 
property. 

Decapitated,  together  with  male  relatives 
to  the  fifth  degree.  Mother,  \\dfe,  and 
daughter  poisoned. 

Strangulation  or  decapitation.  W’ife 
poisoned. 


Under  the  Korean  law,  no  wife  can  obtain  a legal 
dissolution  of  her  marriage.  The  privilege  of  divorce 
rests  with  the  man;  among  the  upper  classes  it  is 
uncommon.  The  wife,  however,  may  leave  her  hus- 
band and  accept  the  protection  of  some  relative, 
when,  unless  the  husband  can  disprove  her  charges, 
he  has  no  redress.  Should  the  wife  fail  to  establish 
her  case  against  her  husband,  the  cost  of  the  mar- 
riage ceremony,  a large  sum  usually,  is  refunded  by 
her  relatives.  The  law  does  not  force  a wife  to 
cohabit  with  her  husband ; nor,  so  far  as  it  affects  the 
woman,  does  it  take  any  cognisance  of  the  matter. 
A man  may  divorce  his  wife,  retaining  the  custody 
of  the  children  in  every  case,  upon  statutory  grounds, 
and  upon  the  following  additional  counts:  indolence, 
neglect  of  the  prescribed  sacrifices,  theft,  and  shrew- 
ishness. There  is  no  appeal  against  the  charges  of 
the  husband  for  women  of  the  upper  classes,  domes- 
tic disturbances  being  considered  entirely  repre- 
hensible. Much  greater  latitude  prevails  among 
the  lower  orders,  irregular  unions  of  a most  benign 

52 


EDUCATION  AND  CRIME 

elasticity  being  preferred.  Concubinage  is  a recog- 
nised institution,  and  one  in  which  the  lower,  as 
well  as  the  higher,  classes  indulge. 

The  rights  of  the  children  of  concubines  vary 
according  to  the  moral  laxity  of  the  class  in  which 
they  are  born.  Among  the  upper  classes  they  pos- 
sess no  claim  against  the  estate  of  their  progenitors; 
entail  ignores  them,  and  they  may  not  observe  the 
family  sacrifices.  In  the  absence  of  legitimate 
issue,  a son  must  be  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  inher- 
iting the  properties  of  the  family  and  of  attending 
to  the  ancestral  and  funeral  rites.  Great  stress  is 
laid  by  the  upper  classes  upon  purity  of  descent; 
among  the  middle  and  lower  orders  there  is  more 
indulgence.  Save  in  the  lowest  classes,  it  is  usual 
to  maintain  a separate  establishment  for  each  concu- 
bine. The  fact  that  among  the  lower  classes  con- 
cubine and  wife  share  the  same  house  is  responsible 
for  much  of  the  unhappiness  of  Korean  family 
life.  In  every  case  the  position  of  the  children  of 
concubines  corresponds  with  the  status  of  the 
mother. 

Within  recent  years,  considerable  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  Government  and  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  law.  Under  the  old  system  the  des- 
potic thesis  of  divine  right  was  associated  with  many 
abuses.  Justice  was  not  tempered  by  mercy,  and, 
in  the  suppression  of  crime,  it  was  not  always  the 
guilty  who  suffered.  The  old  system  of  government 
was  modelled  upon  the  principles  of  the  Ming  rule 
in  China.  The  power  of  the  sovereign  was  abso- 

53 


KOREA 


lute  in  theory  and  in  practice.  He  was  assisted  by 
the  three  principal  officers  of  State  and  six  adminis- 
trative boards,  to  whom,  so  soon  as  the  country  was 
brought  into  contact  with  foreign  nations,  additional 
bureaux  were  added.  Modifications  in  the  spirit, 
or  in  the  letter  of  the  law  have  taken  place  from 
time  to  time  at  the  instance  of  reformers.  Before 
the  ascendancy  of  the  Japanese  came  about,  the 
principles  and  character  of  Korean  law  presented 
no  very  marked  deviation  from  that  which  had  been 
upheld  in  China  through  so  many  centuries.  For  a 
long  time  the  intense  conservatism  of  China  reigned 
in  Korea.  The  authority  of  the  sovereign  is  more 
restricted  to-day;  but  in  the  hands  of  a less  enlight- 
ened monarch  it  would  be  just  as  effective  as  ever 
against  the  interests  of  the  country.  Happily, 
however,  the  era  of  progressive  reform,  which  illus- 
trated the  inauguration  of  the  Empire,  continues. 


54 


CHAPTER  VI 


KOREAN  INDUSTRIES 

The  Koreans  are  an  agricultural  people,  and 
most  of  the  national  industries  are  con- 
nected with  agriculture.  More  than  sev- 
enty per  cent,  of  the  population  are  farmers;  the 
carpenter,  the  blacksmith,  and  the  stonemason 
spring  directly  from  this  class,  combining  a knowl- 
edge of  the  forge  or  workshop  with  a life-long  experi- 
ence of  husbandry.  The  schoolmaster  is  usually 
the  son  of  a yeoman-farmer;  the  fisherman  owns  a 
small  holding  which  his  wife  tills  while  he  is  fishing. 
The  farming  classes  participate  in  certain  industries 
of  the  country;  the  wives  of  the  farmers  raise  the 
cotton,  silk,  linen,  and  grass-cloth  of  the  nation,  and 
they  also  convert  the  raw  material  into  the  finished 
fabrics.  The  sandals,  mats,  osier  and  wooden  wares, 
which  figure  so  prominently  in  Korean  households, 
are  the  work  of  the  farming  classes  in  their  leisure 
moments.  The  officials,  the  yamen  runners,  the 
merchants,  inn-keepers,  miners,  and  junk-men  are 
not  of  this  order,  but  they  are  often  closely  con- 
nected with  it.  The  Government  exists  on  the 
revenues  raised  from  agriculture;  the  people  live 
upon  the  fruits  of  the  soil;  Korean  officials  gov- 
ern whole  communities  given  over  to  agricultural 

55 


KOREA 


labour.  The  internal  economy  of  the  country  has 
been  aflBliated  for  centuries  to  the  pursuits  and  prob- 
lems of  agriculture.  Koreans  are  thus  instinctively 
and  intuitively  agriculturists,  and  it  is  necessarily 
along  these  lines  that  the  development  of  the  coun- 
try should  in  part  progress. 

It  is  impossible  not  to  be  impressed  by  a force 
which  works  so  laboriously,  while  it  takes  no  rest 
save  that  variety  which  comes  in  with  the  change  of 
season.  The  peaceable,  plodding  farmer  of  Korea 
has  his  counterpart  in  his  bull.  The  Korean  peas- 
ant and  his  wearj'  bull  are  made  for  one  another. 
Without  his  ruminating  partner,  the  work  would 
be  impracticable.  It  drags  the  hea\’y  plough  through 
the  deep  mud  of  the  rice-fields,  and  over  the  rough 
surface  of  the  grain  lands;  it  carries  loads  of  brick 
and  wood  to  the  market,  and  hauls  the  unwieldy 
market  cart  along  the  country  roads.  The  two  make 
a magnificent  pair;  each  is  a beast  of  burden.  The 
brutishness,  lack  of  intelligence,  and  boorishness 
of  the  agricultural  labourer  in  England  is  not  quite 
reproduced  in  the  Korean.  The  Korean  farmer  has 
of  necessity  to  force  himself  to  be  patient.  He  is 
content  to  regard  his  sphere  of  utility  in  this  world 
as  one  in  which  man  must  labour  after  the  fashion 
of  his  animals,  with  no  appreciable  satisfaction  to 
himself. 

Originally,  if  historj"  speaks  truly,  the  farmers  of 
Korea  were  inclined  to  be  masterful  and  independent. 
Indications  of  this  earlier  spirit  are  found  nowadays 
in  periodical  protests  against  the  extortionate  de- 

56 


KOREAN  INDUSTRIES 


mands  of  local  officials.  These  disturbances  are 
isolated  and  infrequent,  for,  when  once  their  spirits 
were  crushed,  the  farmers  developed  into  the  pres- 
ent mild  and  inoffensive  type.  They  submit  to 
oppression  and  to  the  cruelty  of  the  Yamen;  they 
endure  every  form  of  illegal  taxation,  and  they  ruin 
themselves  to  pay  “squeezes,”  which  exist  only 
through  their  own  humility.  They  dread  the  as- 
sumption of  rank  and  the  semblance  of  authority. 
Their  fear  of  a disturbance  is  so  great  that,  although 
they  may  murmur  against  the  impositions  of  the 
magistrate,  they  continue  to  meet  his  demands. 

At  the  present  day  the  farmer  of  Korea  is  the  ideal 
child  of  nature;  superstitious,  simple,  patient,  and 
ignorant.  He  is  the  slave  of  his  work,  and  he  moves 
no  further  from  his  village  than  the  nearest  market. 
He  has  a terrified  belief  in  the  existence  of  demons, 
spirits,  and  dragons,  whose  dirty  and  grotesque 
counterfeits  adorn  his  thatched  hut.  There  are 
other  characteristic  traits  in  this  great  section  of 
the  national  life.  Their  capacity  for  work  is  unlim- 
ited; they  are  seldom  idle,  and,  unlike  the  mass  of 
their  countrymen,  they  have  no  sense  of  repose. 
As  farmers,  they  have  by  instinct  and  tradition 
certain  ideas  and  principles  which  are  excellent  in 
themselves.  To  the  wayfarer  and  stranger  the 
individual  farmer  is  supremely  and  surprisingly 
hospitable.  A foreigner  discussing  the  peculiar- 
ities of  their  scenery,  their  lands,  and  the  general 
details  of  their  life  with  them,  is  struck  by  their 
profound  reverence  for  everything  beyond  their 

57 


KOREA 


own  understanding,  and  their  amazing  sense  of  the 
beautiful  in  nature.  The  simplicity  of  their  appre- 
ciation is  delightful.  It  is  easy  to  believe  that  they 
are  more  susceptible  to  the  charms  of  flowers  and 
scenery  than  to  that  of  woman. 

At  rare  intervals  the  farmer  indulges  in  a diver- 
sion. Succumbing  to  the  seductions  of  market  day, 
after  the  fashion  of  every  other  farmer  the  world 
has  ever  known,  he  returns  to  the  homestead  a 
physical  and  moral  wreck,  the  drunk  and  disorderly 
residuum  of  many  months  of  dreary  abstinence  and 
respectability.  At  these  times  he  develops  a phase 
of  unexpected  assertiveness,  and  forcibly  abducts 
some  neighbouring  beauty,  or  beats  in  the  head  of 
a friend  by  way  of  enforcing  his  argument.  From 
every  possible  point  of  view  he  reveals  qualities 
which  proclaim  him  the  simple,  if  not  ideal,  child 
of  nature. 

During  the  many  months  of  my  stay  in  Korea  I 
spent  some  days  at  a wayside  farmhouse,  the  sole 
accommodation  which  could  be  obtained  in  a 
mountain  village.  The  slight  insight  into  the  mode 
of  life  of  the  farming  peasant  which  was  thus  gained 
was  replete  with  interest,  charm,  and  novelty. 
Knowing  something  of  the  vicissitudes  of  farm  life, 
I found  the  daily  work  of  this  small  community 
supremely  instructive.  Upon  many  occasions  I 
watched  the  farmer’s  family  and  his  neighbours  at 
their  work.  The  implements  of  these  people  are 
rude  and  few,  consisting  of  a plough,  with  a movable 
iron  shoe  which  turns  the  sods  in  the  reverse  direc- 

58 


KOREAN  INDUSTRIES 

tion  to  our  own;  furnished  with  ropes  and  dragged 
by  several  men;  bamboo  flails  and  rakes,  a spade, 
and  a small  hoe,  sharp  and  heavy,  used  as  occasion 
may  require  for  reaping,  chopping  and  hoeing,  for 
the  rough  work  of  the  farm,  or  the  lighter  service  of 
the  house. 

During  the  harvest  all  available  hands  muster  in 
the  fields.  The  women  cut  the  crop,  the  men  fasten 
the  sheaves,  which  the  children  load  into  rope  pan- 
niers, suspended  upon  wooden  frames  from  the 
backs  of  bulls.  The  harvest  is  threshed  without 
delay,  the  men  emptying  the  laden  baskets  upon 
the  open  road,  and  setting  to  with  solemn  and  unin- 
terrupted vigour.  WTiile  the  men  threshed  with 
their  flails,  and  the  wind  winnowed  the  grain,  six, 
and  sometimes  eight,  women  worked,  with  their 
feet,  a massive  beam,  from  which  an  iron  or  granite 
pestle  hung  over  a deep  granite  mortar.  This 
rough  and  ready  contrivance  pulverises  the  grain 
suflBciently  for  the  coarse  cakes  which  serve  in  lieu 
of  bread. 

Beyond  the  bull  and  pig,  there  are  few  farm  ani- 
mals in  the  inland  districts.  The  pony  and  the 
donkey  are  not  employed  in  agricultural  work  to 
the  same  extent  as  the  bull.  This  latter  animal  is 
cared  for  more  humanely  than  the  unfortunate 
pony,  whose  good  nature  is  ruined  by  the  execrable 
harshness  with  which  he  is  treated.  The  gross 
cruelty  of  the  Korean  to  his  pony  is  the  most  loath- 
some feature  of  the  national  life. 

Irrigation  is  necessary  only  for  the  rice,  which 

59 


KOREA 


yields  fairly  abundant  crops  throughout  Central 
and  Southern  Korea.  To  the  north,  rice  makes  way 
for  millet,  the  great  supplementary  food  of  Korea. 
Elsewhere  paddy-fields  abound,  and  the  people 
have  become  adepts  in  the  principles  of  irrigation 
and  the  art  of  conserving  water.  Rice  is  sown  in 
May,  transplanted  from  the  nurseries  to  the  paddy- 
fields  in  June,  and  gathered  in  October.  In  times 
of  drought,  when  it  is  necessary  to  tide  over  the 
period  of  distress,  the  fields  are  used  for  barley, 
oats,  and  rye  which,  ripening  in  May  and  cut  in 
June,  allow  a supplementary  crop  to  be  taken  from 
the  fields.  The  fields  are  then  prepared  for  the 
rice.  The  land  is  inundated;  the  peasant  and  his 
bull,  knee-deep  in  water,  plough  the  patches.  Beans, 
peas,  and  potatoes  are  planted  between  the  furrows 
of  the  cornfields,  the  land  being  made  to  produce  to 
its  full  capacity.  The  crops  are  usually  excellent. 

The  fields  differ  from  those  in  China,  where 
the  farmers,  preferring  short  furrows,  grow  their 
crops  in  small  sections.  The  long  furrows  of  the 
Korean  fields  recall  Western  methods,  but  here  the 
analogy  ends.  The  spectacle  of  these  well-ordered 
acres  is  a revelation  of  the  earnest  way  in  which 
these  down-trodden  people  combat  adversity.  In 
many  ways,  however,  they  need  assistance  and 
advice.  If  it  were  prudent  to  accomplish  it,  I would 
convert  the  mission  centres  of  the  inland  districts 
into  experimental  farm-stations,  and  attach  a com- 
petent demonstrator  to  each  establishment. 

The  Koreans  hold  rice,  their  chief  cereal,  in  pecul- 

60 


KOREAN  INDUSTRIES 

iar  honour.  They  state  that  it  originated  in  Ha- 
ram,  in  China,  at  a period  mow  involved  in  much 
fable  and  mystery  — 2838  b.c.  to  2698  b.c.  The 
name,  Syang-nong-si,  itself  means  Marvellous  Agri- 
culture. The  name  was  doubtless  given  at  a later 
time.  The  first  rice  was  brought  to  Korea  by  Ki-ja 
in  1122  B.c.  together  with  barley  and  other  cereals. 
Before  that  time  the  only  grain  raised  in  Korea 
was  millet.  There  are  three  kinds  of  rice  in 
Korea,  with  a variety  of  sub-species.  First,  that 
which  is  grown  in  the  ordinary  paddy-fields.  This 
is  called  specifically  tap-kok,  or  paddy-field  rice. 
It  is  used  almost  exclusively  to  make  tap,  the  ordi- 
nary boiled  rice.  Then  we  have  chun-koky  or  field- 
rice.  This  is  so-called  upland  rice.  It  is  drier 
than  the  paddy-field  rice,  and  is  used  largely  in 
making  rice  flour  and  in  brewing  beer.  The  third 
kind  is  grown  exclusively  on  the  slopes  of  moun- 
tains, and  is  a wild  rice.  It  is  smaller  and  harder 
than  the  other  kinds;  for  this  reason  it  is  used  to 
provision  garrisons.  It  will  withstand  the  weather. 
Under  favourable  circumstances,  lowland  rice  will 
keep  five  years,  but  the  mountain  rice  will  remain 
perfectly  sound  for  quite  ten  years. 

Next  in  importance  to  rice  come  the  different 
kinds  of  pulse,  under  which  heading  is  included  all 
the  leguminous  plants,  the  bean  and  the  pea  family. 
That  Korea  is  well  provided  with  this  valuable  and 
nutritious  form  of  food  will  be  seen  from  the  fact 
that  there  are  thirteen  species  of  round  beans,  two 
kinds  of  long  bean,  and  five  varieties  of  mixed  bean. 

61 


KOREA 


Of  all  these  numerous  assortments,  the  “horse- 
bean”  is  by  far  the  most  common.  It  is  the  bean 
which  forms  such  a large  part  of  the  exports  of  Korea. 
It  is  supposed  by  Koreans  to  have  originated  in 
North-Western  China,  and  derives  its  name  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  used  very  largely  for  fodder.  One 
variety  only  may  be  regarded  as  indigenous  — the 
black-bean  — and  it  is  found  nowhere  else  in  East- 
ern Asia.  Of  the  rest,  the  origin  is  doubtful.  The 
horse-bean  grows  in  greatest  abundance  in  Kybng- 
syang  Province  and  on  the  island  of  Quelpart, 
though  of  course  it  is  common  all  over  the  country. 
The  black-bean  flourishes  best  in  Chyol-la  Prov- 
ince. The  green-bean,  oil-bean,  and  white-cap  bean 
flourish  in  Kyong-keui  Province.  The  yellow  bean 
is  found  in  Hwang-hai  Province;  the  South  River 
bean  appears  in  Chyung-Chyong  Province;  the 
grand-father-bean  (so  called  because  of  its  wrinkles) 
grows  anywhere,  but  not  in  large  quantities.  The 
brown-bean  and  chestnut-bean  come  from  Kang-won 
Province. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  over-estimate  the  impor- 
tance of  these  different  species  of  pulse  to  the 
Korean.  They  furnish  the  oily  and  nitrogenous  ele- 
ments which  are  lacking  in  rice.  As  a diet  they  are 
strengthening,  the  nutritious  properties  of  the  soil 
imparting  a tone  to  the  system.  Preparations  of 
beans  are  as  numerous  as  the  dishes  made  from 
flour;  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  them.  Upon 
an  average,  the  Koreans  eat  about  one-sixth  as 
much  pulse  as  rice.  The  price  of  beans  is  one-half 

62 


KOREAN  INDUSTRIES 

that  of  rice;  the  price  of  either  article  is  liable  to 
variations.  There  are  varieties  which  cost  nearly 
as  much  as  rice. 

The  common  name  for  barley  is  po-ri;  in  poetical 
parlance  the  Koreans  call  barley  The  Fifth  Moon  of 
Autumn,  because  it  is  then  that  it  is  harvested. 
The  value  of  barley  to  the  Korean  arises  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  first  grain  to  germinate  in  the 
spring.  It  carries  the  people  on  until  the  millet 
and  rice  crops  are  ready.  Barley  and  wheat  are 
extensively  raised  throughout  Korea,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  wine  and  beer.  In  other  ways, 
however,  they  may  be  considered  almost  as  important 
as  the  different  kinds  of  pulse.  The  uses  of  barley 
are  very  numerous.  Besides  being  used  directly  as 
farinaceous  food  it  becomes  malt,  medicine,  candy, 
syrup,  and  furnishes  a number  of  side-dishes.  Wheat 
comes  mostly  from  Pybng-an  Province,  only 
small  crops  of  it  appearing  in  the  other  Prov- 
inces. Barley  yields  spring  and  autumn  crops,  but 
wheat  yields  only  the  winter  crop.  The  poor  accept 
wheat  as  a substitute  for  rice,  and  brew  a gruel 
from  it.  It  is  used  as  a paste;  it  figures  in  the  native 
pharmacopoeia,  and  in  the  sacrifices  with  which  the 
summer  solstice  is  celebrated. 

Oats,  millet,  and  sorghum  are  other  important 
cereals  in  Korea.  There  are  six  varieties  of  millet; 
the  price  of  the  finer  qualities  is  the  same  as  that 
obtained  for  rice.  One  only  of  these  six  varieties 
was  found  originally  in  the  country.  Sorghum  is 
grown  principally  in  Kyong-syang  Province.  It 

63 


KOREA 


grows  freely,  however,  in  the  south;  but  is  less 
used  than  wheat,  millet,  or  oats  in  Korea.  A 
curious  distinction  exists  between  the  sorghum 
imported  from  China  and  the  native  grain.  In 
China,  sorghum  is  used  in  making  sugar;  when  this 
sugar-producing  grain  arrives  in  Korea  it  is  found 
impossible  to  extract  the  sugar.  Two  of  the  three 
kinds  of  sorghum  in  Korea  are  native,  the  third 
coming  from  Central  China.  Oats  become  a staple 
food  in  the  more  mountainous  regions,  where  rice  is 
never  seen;  it  is  dressed  like  rice.  From  the  stalk 
the  Koreans  make  a famous  paper,  which  is  used  in 
the  Palaces  of  the  Emperor.  It  is  cultivated  in 
Kang-won,  Ilam-kyong,  and  Pyong-an  Provinces. 

The  Korean  is  omnivorous.  Birds  of  the  air, 
beasts  of  the  field,  and  fish  from  the  sea,  nothing 
comes  amiss  to  his  palate.  Dog-meat  is  in  great 
request  at  certain  seasons;  pork  and  beef  with  the 
blood  undrained  from  the  carcase,  fowls  and  game 
— birds  cooked  with  the  lights,  giblets,  head,  and 
claws  intact,  fish,  sun-dried  and  highly  malodorous, 
all  are  acceptable  to  him.  Cooking  is  not  always 
necessary;  a species  of  small  fish  is  preferred  raw, 
dipped  into  some  piquant  sauce.  Other  dainties 
are  dried  sea-weed,  shrimps,  vermicelli,  made  by 
the  women  from  buckwheat  flour  and  white  of  egg, 
pine  seeds,  lily  bulbs,  honey-water,  wheat,  barley, 
millet,  rice,  maize,  wild  potatoes,  and  all  vegetables 
of  Western  and  Eastern  gardens;  and  this  by  no 
means  exhausts  the  list. 

Their  excesses  make  them  martyrs  to  indigestion. 

64 


K(iHKAX  NATIVES  BUILDING  HOUSES 


CHAPTER  VII 


KOREAN  SCENERY 

The  world  of  politics  in  Seoul  had  become  of 
a sudden  so  profoundly  dull,  that,  ignoring 
the  advice  of  the  weather-wise  inhabitants 
of  the  capital,  I packed  my  kit,  and  hiring  ponies, 
interpreters,  and  servants,  moved  from  the  chief 
walled  city  of  the  Empire  into  the  wild  regions  of 
the  interior.  My  journey  lay  towards  Tong-ko- 
kai,  the  German  mines,  several  days’  journey  from 
Seoul.  Life,  in  the  capital,  is  not  destitute  of  that 
monotony  which  characterises  the  Land  of  the  Morn- 
ing Radiance.  But  beyond  the  precincts  of  the 
Imperial  Palaces,  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  the 
countless  little  coteries  of  Europeans,  the  contrast 
between  the  moving,  soft-robed,  gentle  masses  of 
people  who  congregate  within  her  gates,  and  the 
mountain  reaches  and  valleys  of  the  open  country 
is  refreshing.  For  the  moment  the  pleasure  of  such 
an  experience  ranks  high  among  the  joys  which  life 
holds. 

Save  in  the  first  few  li  from  the  capital,  we  aban- 
doned the  beaten  tracks,  travelling  along  quiet 
byways  and  mountain  paths,  turning  aside  at  fancy 
to  climb  a peak  or  to  take  a swim  in  the  cool,  deep 
waters  of  some  secluded  pool  at  night  and  morn- 

65 


KOREA 


ing,  and  at  our  noonday  halt.  In  the  pleasant 
shades  of  these  cool  mountains  and  sunlit  valleys 
the  people  live  in  unrebuked  simplicity.  They 
offered  the  loan  of  charcoal  stoves  or  retailed  eggs, 
chickens,  and  rice  to  my  servants.  At  the  moment 
of  my  bath,  youths  and  youngsters  gambolled  with 
me  in  the  stream.  It  is  said  that  the  Koreans  are 
far  from  clean,  a statement  they  belied  upon  many 
occasions  by  the  freedom  and  enjoyment  with  which 
they  indulged  in  these  dips.  Foreigners  had  not 
travelled  along  the  route  which  my  friend  and  I 
were  following  to  the  German  mines,  and  even  the 
ubiquitous  evangelist  had  not  penetrated  to  these 
peasant  homes.  The  mountains  and  rivers  had  no 
names;  the  settlements  were  small;  inns  did  not 
exist.  Everywhere  was  contentment,  peace,  and 
infinite  repose.  Nature  stood  revealed  to  us  in 
primaeval  grandeur,  and  it  was  impossible  not  to 
enjoy  the  calm  of  the  valleys,  the  rugged  beauty  of 
the  mountain  crests,  the  picturesque  wildness  of 
the  scenery. 

As  the  days  passed  the  general  character  of  the 
country  remained  unaltered.  The  manifold  and 
complex  tints  in  the  bush,  the  differing  aspects  of 
each  succeeding  height,  the  alternating  complexion 
of  the  valleys,  dissipated  the  monotony,  engendered 
by  the  never  changing  features  of  the  picture  — 
the  trees  and  mountains,  hillside  hamlets  and  moun- 
tain torrents,  precipitous  passes  and  windy  plateaux. 
Moving  thus  slowly  through  the  mountain  passes, 
a wonderful  panorama  silently  disclosed  itself.  Hills 

66 


KOREAN  SCENERY 

were  piled  one  upon  another,  gradually  merging 
into  chains  of  mountains,  the  crests  of  which,  two 
and  three  thousand  feet  in  height,  stood  out  clearly 
defined  against  an  azure  sky,  their  rock-bound  faces 
covered  with  birch,  beech,  oak,  and  pine.  The 
valleys  below  these  mountain  chains  were  long  and 
narrow,  cool  and  cultivated.  A hillside  torrent 
dashed  through  them,  tumbling  noisily  over  massive 
boulders,  gradually  fretting  a new  course  for  itself 
in  the  lava  strata.  Countless  insects  buzzed  in  the 
still  air;  frogs  croaked  in  the  marsh  meadows;  the 
impudent  magpie  and  the  plebeian  crow  choked  and 
chattered  indignantly  among  the  branches  of  the 
trees.  Cock-pheasants  started  from  the  thick  cover 
of  the  low-lying  hills,  the  dogs  pointed  the  nests 
of  the  sitting  hens,  and  does  called  to  their  calves 
among  the  young  bushes.  A calm  and  happy 
nature  revealed  itself  spontaneously  in  these  fragrant 
places,  undisturbed,  luxurious,  and  unrestrained. 
The  road  was  rough.  Here  and  there,  in  keeping 
with  the  wild  and  rugged  beauty  of  the  scene,  it 
became  the  narrow  track  of  the  Australasian  “gacks,” 
congested  with  bushes,  broken  by  holes  and  stones, 
almost  impassable  until  the  coolies  made  a way. 

Across  the  clattering  crystal  of  the  gushing  tor- 
rent a rustic  bridge  was  flung,  the  merest  makeshift, 
three  feet  in  width,  with  a flooring  of  earth  and  bush, 
which  bent  and  swayed  upon  slender  poles,  beneath 
the  slightest  burden.  Some  streams  were  unbridged, 
and  the  diminutive  ponies  splashed  through  them, 
gladly  cooling  their  sweating  flanks  as  their  drivers 

67 


KOREA 


waded  or  carried  one  another  to  the  distant  bank. 
Wild  ferns,  butterflies,  and  flowers  revelled  in  these 
unkempt  gardens.  The  red  dog-lily  and  purple  iris 
glowed  against  the  foliage  of  the  shrubs  and  bushes. 
Gigantic  butterflies  eclipsed  the  glories  of  the  rain- 
bow; their  gorgeous  tints  blending  into  harmony 
with  the  more  subdued  plumage  of  the  cranes  and 
storks  that  floated  lazily  across  the  inundated  spaces 
of  the  paddy-flelds.  Other  birds,  with  dove-grey, 
pink,  or  yellow  breasts  and  black  pinions,  fished  in 
the  streams  with  raucous  cries.  The  most  amazing 
tints,  recalling  some  of  Turner’s  later  pictures, 
gladdened  the  eye  in  these  delightful  valleys.  In 
the  depths  of  the  valleys  the  mountain  torrents 
flowed  more  idly,  and  the  stream  meandered  in  a 
thousand  directions.  Upon  either  bank,  its  vol- 
ume was  diverted  to  the  needs  of  some  adjacent 
rice-field.  In  these  paddy-patches  green  and  ten- 
der shoots  were  just  sprouting  above  a few  inches 
of  clear  water.  Here  and  there,  fields  of  wheat 
bordered  these  w'ater-soaked  stretches;  oats,  corn, 
barley,  tobacco,  cotton,  beans,  and  millet  were 
scattered  about  the  sides  and  plains  of  the  moun- 
tain valleys  in  a fashion  which  proclaimed  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil. 

Everything  throve,  however,  and  the  industry 
of  the  workers  in  the  fields  was  manifested  at  every 
turn  of  the  road.  Their  ingenuity  in  making  the 
most  of  available  land  recalled  the  valleys  which 
run  down  to  the  fiords  of  Norway,  where,  as  in  Korea, 
patches  of  cultivated  ground  are  visible  at  the  snow 

68 


KOREAN  SCENERY 

level.  Here,  in  these  beautiful  valleys,  perhaps  a 
thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  feet  up  the  mountain 
side,  acres  of  golden  crops  will  be  growing  in  the 
warm  and  happy  seclusion  of  some  sheltered  hollow. 

At  the  turn  of  the  winding  track,  bordered  by  the 
paddy-fields  or  acres  of  golden  barley,  oats,  and 
tobacco,  lies  a village.  It  is  but  a cluster  of  some 
dozen  straw-thatched  hovels,  dirty  and  unprepos- 
sessing, but  infinitely  quaint  and  picturesque.  The 
walls  of  the  houses  are  crumbling  and  stayed  up 
with  beams  and  massive  timbers;  the  latticed  win- 
dows are  papered,  the  doorways  low.  A hole  in 
the  wall  serves  the  purposes  of  a chimney;  a dog  is 
sleeping  in  the  porch;  a pig  squeaks,  secured  with  a 
cord  through  the  ears  to  a peg  in  the  wall.  Cocks 
and  hens  are  anywhere  and  everywhere,  the  family 
latrine  — an  open  trough,  foul  and  nauseous,  used 
without  disgust  by  all  members  of  the  family  save 
the  older  women-folk,  stands  upon  the  verandah. 
Somewhere,  near  the  outer  limits  of  the  small  settle- 
ment, an  erection  of  poles  and  straw  matting  dis- 
tinguishes the  village  cesspool,  the  contents  of  which 
are  spread  over  the  fields  in  the  proper  season. 

A glimpse  into  a house,  as  one  rides  through  the 
village,  shows  a man  combing  his  long  hair,  a woman 
beating  her  husband’s  clothes  or  ironing  with  a 
bowl  heated  with  charcoal;  many  naked  children, 
the  progeny  of  child-wives,  scarce  out  of  their  teens. 
For  the  moment  the  village  seems  devoid  of  life. 
As  the  clatter  of  the  cavalcade  resounds,  a child, 
feeding  itself  from  a basin  of  rice,  emerges  from  a 

69 


KOREA 


window;  a man  tumbles  to  his  feet  yawning  noisily. 
Women,  with  infants  hanging  at  their  breasts  or 
bearing  children  strapped  to  their  backs  in  dirty 
clothes,  the  usual  naked  band  of  well-developed 
breast  and  unwashed  back  showing,  crowd  into  the 
streets.  All  eye  the  newcomers  with  indifferent 
curiosity,  until  we  wish  them  a plenteous  rain  — 
“May  the  rain  come  soon,  good  people.”  Then  they 
bend  their  heads  respectfully  at  the  salutation,  and 
instantly  become  bright  and  smiling.  Winsome 
children,  muddy  and  naked,  offer  us  flowers,  and 
bowls  of  water  from  the  streams  upon  which  their 
elders  have  settled. 

As  the  road  threaded  through  the  mountains, 
long  valleys,  widely  and  richly  cultivated,  the  yel- 
low lustre  of  the  golden  crops  blazing  in  the  sun- 
light, lay  below.  Granite  peaks  towered  upwards, 
their  rugged  faces  scored  by  time  and  tempest, 
their  ragged  outlines  screened  with  firs  and  birch. 
The  still  air  was  laden  with  the  aromatic  scent  of 
the  pine-woods;  the  sky  was  clear  and  blue.  In  the 
distance,  snow-white  clouds  hung  in  diaphanous  fes- 
toons about  a curve  in  the  mountains.  The  rough 
contour  broke  where  the  heights  were  bleakest  and 
most  barren.  A twist  in  the  broad  valley  which 
our  road  traversed  limited  the  prospect,  but  the 
direction  lay  beneath  the  shadows  of  those  distant 
peaks,  and  the  perspective  already  compensated  for 
the  precipitous  climb. 

Indeed,  from  a few  li  beyond  Chybk-syong,  a 
magistracy  of  the  fourth  class,  where  the  houses  are 

70 


KOREAN  SCENERY 

roofed  with  thick  slabs  of  slate  supported  by  heavy 
beams,  where  the  streets  are  clean,  and  where  road 
and  river  alike  make  a detour,  the  views  by  the 
wayside  became  increasingly  impressive.  For  mile 
upon  mile  we  saw  no  wayfarers.  The  villages  w^ere 
widely  distant;  fertile  valleys  gave  place  to  green- 
black  gorges,  without  cultivation,  peaceful,  grandly 
beautiful,  and  uninhabitable.  The  perfect  still- 
ness and  the  wonderful  magnificence  of  the  pano- 
rama held  one  spell-bound.  There  was  no  change 
in  the  character  of  the  scenery  until,  riding  slowly 
forward,  the  road  dropped  from  the  comfortable 
shade  of  a mountain  temple  into  the  blazing  sun- 
shine of  the  plain.  Pushing  forward,  the  rice  and 
cornfields  receded,  giving  place  to  the  ranges,  whose 
lofty  peaks,  dressed  with  their  mantling  clouds, 
had  been  already  dimly  discerned.  Throughout  the 
journey  of  the  next  two  days  the  road  rose  and  fell, 
winding  in  a steady  gradient  across  the  mountain 
sides. 

The  march  to  Tong-ko-kai  was  laborious,  and  one 
day,  when  within  easy  distance  of  the  concession  in 
a tiny  hamlet,  the  colour  of  the  slate  and  granite 
boulders,  nestling  among  waving  bushes,  almost 
unconscious  of  the  outer  world  and  hardly  alive  to 
its  own  existence,  an  ideal  spot  in  which  to  pitch  the 
evening  camp  was  found.  It  was  early  in  the  after- 
noon, but  the  road  ahead  looked  rough  and  stony. 
Our  horses  were  fatigued,  the  ford  had  been  trouble- 
some, and  we  were  wet,  cold,  and  hungry.  Within 
the  bush  the  shadows  were  deepening.  No  one 

71 


KOREA 


knew  the  site  of  the  next  village  nor  the  precise 
direction  in  which  we  were  moving,  so  we  halted. 
That  night  we  snuggled  down  with  our  faces  to  the 
cliffs.  Our  horses  were  tethered  in  a patch  of  com, 
and  the  kit,  the  servants,  interpreters,  and  grooms 
lay  in  one  confused  and  hungry  tangle  round  us. 
Within  sound  of  the  deep  roar  of  the  river  we  slept 
peacefully.  Indeed,  I am  not  certain  that  this  one 
hour  when,  invigorated  by  a swim  in  some  moun- 
tain pool,  refreshed  by  a slight  repast,  we  rocked  in 
our  camp  beds,  smoking  and  chatting,  looking  into 
the  cool  black  depths  of  the  canopy  above  us,  was 
not  the  best  that  the  day  held.  There  was  some- 
thing intensely  restful  in  those  long,  silent  watches. 
The  mighty  stillness  of  the  surrounding  heights  of 
itself  gave  a repose,  to  which  the  night  winds,  the 
murmurs  of  the  running  water,  and  our  ovm  physical 
fatigue  insensibly  added.  It  Tvas  pleasant  to  hear 
the  ponies  eating;  to  w^atch  the  stars  come  out,  the 
moon  rise;  to  listen  to  the  bull-frog  in  the  water 
weeds  and  the  echoes  of  the  song  of  a peasant, 
rising  and  falling  among  the  peaks  of  the  high 
mountains,  until,  at  length,  all  sounds  had  passed 
away  and  the  great  world  around  us,  above  us,  and 
below,  lay  at  peace. 


72 


CHAPTER  VIII 


MINING  AND  HUNTING 

Nature  has  been  active  in  these  regions. 

There  is  much  limestone  and  slate  forma- 
tion, some  basaltic  upheavals,  lava  boul- 
ders, and  chain  upon  chain  of  granite  peaks.  To 
the  west  of  Tong-ko-kai  there  is  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano,  but  the  lava  strata  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  concession  are  almost  completely  eroded.  The 
basin  of  the  concession  is  well  watered,  cultivated, 
and  populous  in  places.  It  is  surrounded  by  ranges 
three,  four,  and  five  thousand  feet  in  height.  Korea 
is  very  mountainous  in  the  north  and  hilly  in  the 
south.  The  watershed  between  the  Sea  of  Japan 
and  the  Yellow  Sea  extends  north  and  south,  nearly 
parallel  to  the  east  coast.  In  a sense  this  line  of 
mountain  ranges  is  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula; 
the  eastern  side  of  the  main  watershed  is  narrow  and 
abrupt,  while  the  western  is  more  extended  and 
contains  low  plains,  favourable  to  agriculture.  The 
general  altitude  of  the  peaks  varies  between  five  and 
six  thousand  feet.  A few  isolated  points  in  the 
extreme  north  are  believed  to  be  higher. 

The  principal  mining  districts  are  situated  along 
the  courses  of  the  main  and  the  minor  watersheds. 
The  famous  mining  districts  of  Kang-kyoi,  Kap-san, 

73 


KOREA 


and  Teh-chang-chin,  at  present  in  the  occupation 
of  native  workmen,  occur  upon  the  plateau  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  range,  which  constitutes  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  province  of  Pyong-an,  with 
the  main  watershed  of  the  country.  The  British 
mines  at  Eun-san  are  situated  in  country  pierced 
by  the  north-western  antilies  of  the  main  water- 
shed. The  position  of  the  German  mines  bears  a 
similar  relation  to  the  great  natural  division  of  the 
country,  upon  its  eastern  side.  Many  useful  min- 
erals are  distributed  over  Korea  — gold,  silver, 
lead,  copper,  iron,  coal  — but  that  which  yields 
the  richest  harvest  is  gold. 

The  presence  of  gold  has  been  known  from  the 
earliest  times.  Knochenhauer,  a German  geolo- 
gist, has  declared  it  to  exist  in  every  river  in  the 
Kingdom.  Hitherto,  alluvial  gold  has  been  the 
principal  yield  to  native  workers.  The  miners  fol- 
lowed the  object  of  their  search  up  the  mountain 
side  until  they  struck  veins  and  lodes,  whence  much 
of  the  alluvial  gold  was  derived.  The  chief  aurif- 
erous districts  are  in  the  northern  half  of  the 
country;  in  which  sphere  lie  the  American  mine 
at  Un-san,  the  British  mine  at  Eun-san,  and  the 
German  mine  at  Tong-ko-kai. 

The  original  source  of  Korean  gold  may  be  found 
in  the  quartz  vein,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  American 
jinines,  is  alleged  to  give  exceptionally  rich  returns. 
The  alluvial  deposits,  brought  dovTi  from  the  veins 
in  the  mountain-ridges,  have  been  freely  worked 
by  Koreans;  and  when  more  scientifically  treated 

74 


MINING  AND  HUNTING 

the  yield  is  satisfactory.  The  schotter  sediments, 
in  the  case  of  the  Tong-ko-kai  mines,  attained  a 
maximum  of  seventy -five  feet  in  depth,  a thickness 
of  sedimentary  matter  some  fifty  feet  in  excess  of 
the  usual  formation.  The  concession  was  granted 
in  1898.  Under  it  powers  were  given  to  a German 
company  to  select  a place  twenty  miles  long  and 
thirteen  miles  wide,  within  two  years  from  the  date 
of  signing  the  contract,  for  the  purpose  of  working 
all  minerals  during  a space  of  twenty-five  years, 
with  an  annual  payment  to  the  Korean  Government 
of  twenty-five  per  cent,  on  the  net  profits.  The 
revenues  received  from  these  contracts  belong  to 
the  Imperial  Household,  passing  directly  into  the 
private  purse  of  the  Sovereign.  In  the  case  of  the 
English  syndicate,  the  percentage  was  compounded 
for  a sum  of  $100,000  and  an  annual  payment  of  a 
further  $10,000. 

The  site  which  the  Germans  selected  for  their 
concession  was,  at  the  moment  when  they  assumed 
control  over  the  areas,  the  centre  of  extensive  allu- 
vial workings.  The  native  miners  strongly  objected 
to  the  innovation,  and  prepared  to  resist  the  rights 
of  the  German  company  by  force.  In  the  end, 
however,  their  hostility  was  overcome  by  granting 
them  twelve  months’  additional  occupation  of  the 
works,  and,  when  Herr  Bauer  assumed  charge  as 
administrative  engineer,  opposition  was  already  at 
an  end.  The  district  is  covered  with  the  remains 
of  old  workings  in  the  schotter  of  the  river-bed; 
they  are  also  to  be  found  in  a few  places  in  the 

75 


KOREA 


quartz  upon  the  mountain  side.  In  the  absence  of 
the  requisite  machinery,  work  upon  the  conces- 
sion was  necessarily  disorganised.  Eventually  the 
concession  was  abandoned,  close  investigation  fail- 
ing to  disclose  its  possession  of  any  very  remu- 
nerative quantities.  At  the  time  of  its  withdrawal, 
the  company  employed  nine  Europeans,  thirteen 
Japanese  and  Chinese,  and  some  three  hundred 
Koreans. 

Korean  mining  is  very  elementary.  The  usual 
methods  are  “placer”  and  “crushing”  and  a pro- 
cess of  treatment  by  fire.  A vertical  shaft  is  sunk, 
with  narrow  steps  cut  into  its  sides,  to  the  level  of 
the  reef;  the  bottom  of  the  shaft  is  then  packed  with 
wood,  which  is  ignited  and  kept  burning  for  several 
days.  The  heated  rock  becomes  very  friable  and 
yields  readily  to  the  crude  implements  of  the  miners. 
There  is  great  competition  to  secure  the  bottom 
pitch  in  these  shafts;  the  more  intrepid  rarely  delay 
their  descent  until  the  working  has  cooled.  The 
quartz  is  sometimes  rubbed  to  powder  and  the  gold 
washed  out,  or  it  is  crushed  between  huge  boulders, 
washed,  re-crushed,  and  panned  again.  The  gold 
is  then  picked  out.  Until  lately  there  were  no  places 
where  the  gold  was  tested  by  other  than  the  most 
antiquated  methods. 

Such  sanguine  hopes  have  been  raised  as  to  the 
results  of  the  mining  in  Korea,  that  it  would  be  as 
well  if  the  public  accepted  all  statements  in  regard 
to  these  investments  with  great  caution.  The 
results  of  the  development  of  the  various  mining 

76 


MINING  AND  HUNTING 


concessions,  now  in  progress,  will  be  awaited  with 
much  interest,  and  will,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  form  a 
reliable  test  of  the  mining  possibilities  of  the  coun- 
try. The  returns  from  the  American  mines  encour- 
age the  belief  that  these  possibilities  have  not  been 
over-estimated;  but  it  has  yet  to  be  proved  that 
mining  operations  can  be  profitably  carried  on  with 
Western  methods  and  appliances.  The  deposits  in 
which  gold  is  found  in  Korea  are  irregular,  and  by 
no  means  continuous.  To  a Korean  miner  this  is 
of  small  importance.  His  outfit  costs  at  the  most  a 
few  shillings,  and  his  belongings  are  easily  trans- 
ported to  any  distance  as  circumstances  demand. 
A different  order  of  things  is  essential  to  a successful 
installation  of  Western  machinery,  and  the  public 
require  some  proof  that  there  is,  within  workable 
distance,  a sufficient  quantity  of  ore  to  yield  a fair 
profit  on  their  investments.  This  has  yet  to  be 
proved  in  the  case  of  the  British  mine;  in  respect 
of  the  German  concession,  the  business  resulted  in  a 
fiasco.  That  these  mining  enterprises  should  be 
successful  is  desirable  in  the  interests  of  both  natives 
and  foreigners.  They  afford  steady  employment  at 
a fair  wage  to  thousands  of  Koreans,  at  least,  part 
of  whose  earnings  is  expended  in  the  purchase  o^ 
foreign  goods.  It  is  perhaps,  however,  not  alto- 
gether unfortunate  that  the  Korean  Government 
is  averse,  at  present,  to  grant  further  concessions. 

During  our  halt  at  Tong-ko-kai,  one  day  was 
spent  in  climbing  the  mighty  peaks  to  lofty 
spots  where,  at  a height  of  some  thousands  of  feet, 

77 


KOREA 


native  prospectors  were  driving  into  the  granite 
facing  of  the  mountain  in  an  efiFort  to  strike  the 
main  reef. 

Another  day  was  passed  in  a hunt  across  the  crests 
of  the  ranges  after  bear  and  deer.  At  daybreak, 
a little  after  4 a.m.  upon  the  morning  of  this  excur- 
sion, Herr  Bauer  escorted  us  to  a prospector’s  hut 
in  the  damp  recesses  of  a distant  valley,  where  our 
beaters,  gun-carriers,  and  hunter-guides  had  been 
ordered  to  rendezvous  for  a bear  hunt.  Alas!  the 
Korean  cannot  bestir  himself!  His  late  rising  on 
this  occasion  delayed  our  departure  from  the  hut 
two  hours.  The  sun  had  risen  when  the  expedition 
moved  off,  a motley  retinue  of  professional  hunters 
and  beaters  accompanying  us  to  the  gorge,  wherein 
lay  the  bear.  Hunters  and  beaters  attached  them- 
selves to  each  of  us,  and  we  proceeded  across  the 
mountain,  pursuing  a narrow  and  broken  track, 
which  cleft  the  bare  summit  of  the  highest  ridges. 
We  climbed  up  and  dovTi  and  in  and  out  of 
many  sheltered  and  well-timbered  gorges,  until  the 
hunters  warned  us  that  we  were  approaching  our 
stations. 

The  beaters  disappeared,  making  a detour  of  some 
li,  to  beat  up  the  many  crooked  twists  and  turns 
which  the  drive  took.  Hours  passed  while  we, 
hot,  hungry,  and  athirst,  lay  hidden  in  the  rank  bush 
awaiting  a sight  of  the  quarry.  For  the  first  hour 
no  sound  broke  the  serenity  of  the  valley;  presently, 
however,  the  cries  of  the  beaters  came  to  us,  wafted 

78 


MINING  AND  HUNTING 

from  below,  or  floating  lazily  from  the  surrounding 
heights.  At  flrst,  only  a distant  moaning,  like  the 
sobbing  of  a storm  among  the  trees  of  a forest,  broke 
upon  our  ears.  The  strange  sounds  created  much 
restlessness  among  the  wild  wood-pigeons,  the  cooing 
doves,  and  the  cheery,  chattering  magpies.  Red- 
breasted  storks  rose  with  disdainful  elegance  from 
the  shallows  of  the  trickling  stream  and  soared 
towards  other  pools.  The  mists  of  night  rolled 
away  from  the  valley ; the  dew  disappeared  from  the 
matted  undergrowth;  the  sun  mounted;  the  day  grew 
warmer.  The  blood  coursed  through  our  veins  as  we 
peered  hither  and  thither,  scanning  the  opposite  faee 
of  the  valley  with  the  keenest  vigilance.  The  beaters 
were  ascending.  The  harsh  cries  of  their  raucous 
voices  broke  upon  the  air.  The  air  vibrated  with 
eerie  noises;  a spasmodic  howling  arose  from  the 
depths  of  the  valley,  where  an  isolated  beater  lashed 
himself  into  a fever  of  vociferous  discord.  Hoarse 
shouts  boomed  above  us,  and  echoed  against  the 
crags  of  the  gorge.  On  either  side  of  us,  the  valley 
resounded  to  the  labours  of  the  beaters,  who,  gain- 
ing the  extreme  crests,  had  now  descended,  driving 
everything  before  them.  They  approached  rapidly, 
joined  by  the  native  hunters,  who  had  now  taken  up 
positions  upon  the  rocks  which  overlooked  the  place 
where  we  were  hiding.  Our  own  moment  had 
arrived.  Each  man  fingered  his  rifle,  peering  for- 
ward as  the  concluding  effort  of  the  beaters  burst 
forth  in  a hurricane  of  clamour.  We  looked  and 
waited,  until  the  conclusion  was  forced  upon  us 

79 


KOREA 


that  the  bear  had  already  long  since  broken  through 
the  lines  of  his  pursuers. 

Hunting  in  general  is  considered  a servile  occupa- 
tion by  the  Koreans,  and  the  pursuit  of  the  deer,  the 
bear,  and  the  tiger  is  not  a favourite  sport  among 
the  young  bloods  of  the  kingdom.  Nobles,  except 
those  who  belong  to  a few  impoverished  families 
in  the  extreme  northern  provinces,  and  who  are 
reduced  to  the  pastime  to  supplement  their  resources, 
never  indulge  in  it.  It  is,  nevertheless,  free  to  all. 
There  are  no  game  laws,  no  proscription  of  arms, 
and  few  preserves.  There  is  no  interdicted  season 
in  any  part  of  the  country.  The  one  creature  which 
it  is  forbidden  to  destroy  is  the  falcon,  whose  life  is 
protected  by  most  stringent  enactments.  The  hunt- 
ing-grounds are  almost  solely  confined  to  the  moun- 
tainous districts,  and  the  hunters  are  a class  apart 
throughout  the  country.  They  shift  their  grounds 
rapidly  and  constantly  in  search  of  game,  living 
at  the  expense  of  any  village  where  they  may  tem- 
porarily lodge  in  return  for  the  protection  from  wild 
animals  which  their  prowess  assures  to  the  local 
population.  Their  chief  weapon  is  the  flint-lock, 
imported  from  Japan.  The  barrel  is  inlaid  with 
silver,  and  bound  with  thin  silver  bands  or  strips 
of  tin.  This  weapon  is  loaded  with  iron  bullets, 
similar  in  size  to  those  contained  in  a seven-pound 
shrapnel  shell.  The  charge  is  ignited  from  a coil 
of  plaited  straw’-cord,  which  is  kept  alight  during 
the  progress  of  the  hunt.  The  stock  is  short  and 
light.  When  the  gun  is  fired,  the  butt  of  this  curi- 

80 


MINING  AND  HUNTING 


ous  and  antique  weapon  rests  against  the  cheek- 
bone. The  faces  of  many  of  the  hunters,  who 
accompanied  us,  were  scarred  below  the  right  eye. 

Their  dress  is  characteristic,  and  they  are  further 
distinguished  by  their  boldness,  fearlessness,  and 
independent  bearing.  They  adopt,  as  a uniform,  a 
blue  canvas  shirt,  to  which  is  added  a blue  or  green 
cotton  turban,  which  is  coiled  twice  through  the 
hair,  the  torn,  frayed  end  hanging  over  the  forehead. 
Coloured  beads  are  entwined  in  this  head-dress, 
and  a necklace  of  similar  beads  encircles  the  throat. 
Chains  of  seed-beans  hang  across  the  breast,  to 
which  are  fastened  the  many  ingenious  contrivances 
of  their  calling.  The  hunters  imitate  the  sounds  of 
various  birds  and  animals  very  cleverly,  particularly 
those  of  a pheasant  calling  to  his  hen  and  a doe  cry- 
ing to  her  calves.  The  pheasant-call  is  made  from 
a disc  of  iron  about  the  size  of  a sixpenny  piece. 
It  resembles  the  stone  of  an  apricot  and  is  pierced. 
The  decoy  used  for  deer  is  made  from  a split  bamboo 
stalk. 

Bird-hunters  never  shoot  their  quarry  upon  the 
wing.  They  disguise  themselves  in  skins  or  feathers, 
bringing  down  their  game  from  some  well-concealed 
coign  of  vantage.  Deer  are  hunted  during  June 
and  July.  The  hunters  form  into  small  parties,  and 
beat  up  the  mountains  for  several  days  until  their 
prey  is  within  gunshot.  The  horns  are  sold  to 
the  native  physicians,  or  exported  to  China  and 
Japan.  WTen  in  pursuit  of  the  bear,  hunters 
are  more  than  usually  careful  to  delay  firing  until 

81 


KOREA 


the  effect  of  their  shot  is  certain.  Good  prices  are 
fetched  by  the  various  parts  of  a bear.  In  addition 
to  the  proceeds  from  the  pelt,  the  flesh,  fat,  sinews, 
and  gall  of  a bear,  supposed  to  possess  certain  medic- 
inal properties,  sell  for  their  weight  in  silver.  The 
one  royal  quadruped  associated  with  Korea,  as  the 
white  elephant  is  with  Siam,  the  dromedary  with 
Egypt,  the  bison  with  the  United  States,  is  the 
tiger.  Unlike  the  Indian  species,  that  delights  in 
the  tropical  jungles,  this  animal  is  found  in  Korea 
in  the  snow  and  forests  of  the  north,  and  as  far  as 
the  fiftieth  parallel.  In  the  mind  of  the  Korean, 
the  tiger  is  the  symbol  of  fierceness,  an  emblem  of 
martial  pomp  and  glory.  The  tiger  hunters  affect 
to  despise  their  noble  game,  and  upon  occasions  they 
even  attack  them  single-handed  with  a lance  or 
short  sword,  assisted  by  trained  dogs.  Tigers  are 
sometimes  caught  in  pits,  covered  with  earth  and 
bushes,  and  filled  with  stakes.  In  this  condition 
it  is  easy  to  kill  them.  The  hunters  eat  the  meat, 
selling  the  skin  and  bones. 

Tiger  hunters  are  exceptionally  courageous.  Their 
services  are  requisitioned  by  their  Government  upon 
occasion  in  the  defence  of  the  Empire.  Armed  with 
matchlock,  spear  and  sword,  they  defeated  the 
French,  under  Admiral  Roze,  in  1866,  and  heroically 
resisted  the  advance  of  the  Americans  in  1871.  In 
1901  they  were  assembled  to  protect  the  northern 
frontier  from  the  incursions  of  Manchurian  bandits. 


82 


CHAPTER  IX 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 

Game  abounds  in  the  region  between  the 
German  mines  and  the  Diamond  Moun- 
tains, and  as  we  moved  slowly  forward  to 
the  famous  Monastery  of  Chang-an,  many  short 
halts  were  made  in  search  of  birds  and  deer.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  deer  evaded  us  and  it  became  impos- 
sible to  put  up  the  pheasants  out  of  the  dense  growth 
in  the  bushes  in  which  they  found  cover.  We 
had,  however,  some  sport  among  the  wood-pigeon. 
Korean  hunters  accompanied  us  some  little  dis- 
tance upon  our  journey,  leaving  our  caravan  when 
our  ways  diverged.  Beyond  the  Hai-yong  River 
their  track  lay  to  the  west  into  the  heart  of  the 
mountains;  our  own  continued  north-east. 

The  hardships,  experienced  in  travelling  through 
Korea,  were  exemplified  by  the  difficulties  of  our 
progress.  They  were  intensified,  however,  by  our 
ignorance  of  the  precise  trail,  which  it  was  neces- 
sary to  follow  across  the  heights  from  Tong-ko-kai 
to  the  mountain  retreat  of  the  pious  monks.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  village  of  To-chi-dol  warned  our 
grooms  of  the  dificulty  of  taking  horses  across  the 
Tan-bal-yang  Pass,  the  one  barrier,  which  remained 
unsurmounted,  between  the  outside  world  and  the 

83 


KOREA 


quiet  repose  of  the  first  monastery  in  the  Keum- 
kang-san.  Until  we  enforced  our  orders  with  sticks 
the  mampus  were  inclined  to  give  up  the  enter- 
prise. Their  opposition  was  momentary;  the  transi- 
tion from  a somewhat  angry  mood  into  their  usual 
condition  of  unruflBed  composure  and  high  spirits 
was  ^instantaneous.  With  untiring  energy  and 
patience  they  encouraged  their  diminutive  ponies 
to  climb  the  boulders;  to  twist  and  wriggle  between 
the  clumps  of  tangled  bushes  and  masses  of  rock 
which  beset  the  path,  and  to  scramble  across  the 
steeps.  We  followed  a dried-up  water  course  at 
the  level  of  the  valley,  making  the  ascent  gradually. 
The  climb  was  severe,  and  became  so  steep  that  the 
pack-saddles  slipped  off  the  backs  of  the  ponies. 
It  occupied  our  eight  animals  some  four  hours,  test- 
ing the  endurance  of  pony  and  groom,  alike  the 
product  of  the  hills,  stout  of  limb  and  strong  of 
wind. 

The  descent  from  the  spirit  shrine,  in  a gap  on 
the  crest  of  the  range,  was  less  toilsome.  The 
grooms  plaited  ropes  of  green  creepers,  plucked 
from  the  bush,  and  strung  them  round  the  packs. 
Walking  behind  the  ponies,  they  held  to  these  cords, 
thus  supporting  the  animals  and  preventing  the 
loads  and  clumsy  saddles  from  reversing  the  process 
of  the  previous  scramble.  Nevertheless,  our  path 
was  littered  with  fragments  of  our  baggage.  The 
contrivance  was  successful,  however,  and  in  the 
main  the  little  steeds  picked  their  way  with  an  easy 
accuracy  through  the  cool  green  woods.  The  moun- 

84 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 

tain  side  was  fragrant  with  innumerable  plants,  the 
bush  a tangle  of  magnificent  ferns,  trees,  and  shrubs. 
Oaks,  hawthorn,  chestnut,  birch,  and  pines  grew  in 
crowded  splendour;  the  wild  rose,  the  freckled  lily, 
and  a purple  orchid  embroidered  the  moss.  Beyond 
the  hollows  of  the  hilly  woodlands,  the  crumpled 
backs  of  the  jagged  mountains  reared  themselves 
skyward,  their  proud  crests  lost  in  the  clouds,  soar- 
ing silently  to  a height  of  five  thousand  feet.  Below 
in  the  valley,  a wall  of  granite  mountains  set  up  an 
impenetrable  barrier  before  a noisy  river,  which 
until  the  advent  of  the  rainy  season  becomes  the 
merest  trickle  of  silver  in  a lone  expanse  of  river-bed. 

Our  way  led  across  the  river-bed  and  thence  into 
the  centre  of  the  mountains,  a journey  of  one  more 
day,  to  The  Temple  of  Eternal  Rest.  After  cross- 
ing the  Tan-bal-yang  Pass  we  delayed,  resting  at 
Kal-kan-i.  Starting  at  daybreak,  upon  the  next 
morning  we  moved  through  the  Kak-pi  Pass,  as  the 
sun  touched  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  which  shut 
in  the  narrow  valley,  across  which  lay  the  last  stage 
of  the  journey.  We  were  nearing  the  last  home  of 
many  distressed  pilgrims.  In  a cleft  among  the 
mountains  the  deep  curved  roofs  of  many  temples 
might  be  seen.  The  air  was  tremulous  with  the 
pleasant  jangling  of  bells,  and  from  a wayside  shrine 
the  sweet  fumes  of  incense  mingled  with  the  scent 
of  the  pines.  The  calm  and  seclusion  of  this  spir- 
itual retreat  was  in  itself  soothing;  as  one  passed 
beneath  the  red  gate,  that  indicates  royal  patron- 
age, the  placid  gentleness  of  the  scene  was  an  allure- 

85 


KOREA 


merit  to  the  consolation  and  protection  ofiPered  by 
this  Buddhistic  asylum. 

There  are  thirty-four  monasteries  and  monastic 
shrines  in  the  Keum-kang-san,  and  they  are  tended 
by  three  hundred  monks  and  sixty  nuns.  Chang-an 
is  the  oldest,  and  has  been  in  existence  for  some  gen- 
erations. In  515  A.D.,  during  the  reign  of  Po- 
pheung,  a king  of  Silla,  it  was  restored  by  two 
monks,  Y ul-sa  and  Chin-kyo.  Other  monasteries,  akin 
to  this  in  their  romantic  setting  and  picturesque  se- 
clusion, are  Pyo-un,  which,  together  with  Chang-an 
is  situated  upon  the  western  slopes,  Yu-chom  and 
Sin-ga  upon  the  eastern  slopes.  These,  with  thirty 
others  of  less  importance,  excite  the  most  profound 
interest  and  enthusiasm  among  the  Koreans,  many  of 
whom  repeatedly  brave  the  difficulties  and  fatigues 
of  travel  in  the  Diamond  Mountains  to  visit  them. 

The  four  chief  monasteries  are  served  by  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy  monks  and  thirty  nuns.  The 
main  temple  of  Chang-an  is  a large  building,  forty- 
eight  feet  in  height,  of  the  type  to  which  travellers 
in  the  East  soon  become  accustomed.  The  wooden 
structure  is  rectangular,  with  two  roofs,  deep, 
curved,  and  richly  carved  eaves,  the  heaiy  tiled 
roofs  being  supported  upon  teak  pillars  three  feet 
in  circumference.  The  diamond-cut  panels  of  the 
doors,  which  serve  as  windows,  are  ornamented 
with  gold,  and  the  lofty  ceiling  is  carved  and  wrought 
in  rich  designs,  lavishly  gilded  and  highly  coloured 
in  blue,  red,  green,  and  gold.  Granite  steps  give 
access  to  the  temples;  the  main  beams  and  supports 

86 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 


of  the  whole  edifice  resting  upon  huge  circular 
slabs  of  this  stone. 

On  the  inner  walls  of  this  building  there  are  scenes 
from  the  life  of  Gautama,  the  apostle  of  the  Buddhis- 
tic creed.  A gilded  image  figures  as  the  centre  of 
a golden  group  of  seven  past  and  future  godheads, 
incarnations  of  the  One  and  sublime  Sakya-muni, 
whose  future  reappearance  is  anticipated  by  the 
faithful.  Brass  incense-burners,  candlesticks,  and 
a manuscript  book  of  masses  in  Chinese  and  Korean 
characters,  resting  upon  a faded  cover  of  soiled  and 
dusty  brocade,  furnish  the  front  of  the  altar.  Before 
this  high  altar,  wonderfully  impressive  and  inspir- 
ing in  the  dim  religious  light  of  the  vast  interior,  a 
priest  spends  certain  hours  of  the  day  and  night  in 
profound  obeisance,  intoning,  chanting,  and  gabbling 
monotonously  and  with  constant  genuflections,  the 
words  Na-mu  Ami  Tahul.  This  expression  is  a 
phonetic  rendering  of  certain  Thibetan  words,  the 
meaning  of  which  the  Abbot  himself  was  unable  to 
explain;  when  transcribed  in  Chinese  characters  it 
appears  equally  unintelligible. 

Other  temples  in  this  particular  monastery  are 
dedicated  to  The  Abode  of  Virtue,  The  Four  Sages, 
and  The  Ten  Judges.  Within  these  edifices  Sakya- 
muni  and  his  disciples  sit  in  different  attitudes  of 
ineffable  abstraction,  contemplating  gruesome  pic- 
tures of  demons,  animals,  and  the  torments  awarded 
in  after-life  to  the  wicked.  Many  of  the  buildings 
of  Chang-an  have  been  restored  within  recent  years. 
The  work  has  been  completed  long  since,  and  the 

87 


KOREA 


spacious  courtyards  are  now  well  kept.  The  temples 
are  clean  and  spotless,  the  whole  monastery  bearing 
witness  to  the  care  with  which  it  is  maintained. 

Besides  the  more  important  temples,  there  are 
many  smaller  shrines,  set  within  some  forest  nook; 
a stage  for  the  more  important  religious  observances, 
bell  and  tablet  houses,  stables  for  the  ponies  of  the 
numerous  visitors,  a nunnery,  and  a refectory  for 
the  Abbot  and  monks.  There  are,  in  addition,  cells 
for  the  priests  and  quarters  for  the  servants.  Accom- 
modation is  found  for  the  widows,  orphans,  and  the 
destitute;  for  the  lame,  the  halt,  and  the  blind;  for 
the  aged  and  forlorn,  to  whom  the  monks  grant  shel- 
ter and  protection.  Besides  the  Abbot,  there  were 
in  the  monastery  some  twenty  other  men,  monks, 
priests,  and  neophytes,  and  ten  nuns  of  various 
ages,  ranging  from  girlhood  to  wrinkled  wisdom. 

The  establishment  derives  its  revenues  from  the 
rent  and  proceeds  of  the  Church  lands,  donations 
from  pilgrims  and  guests,  occasional  benefactions 
from  the  wealthy,  and  the  collections  made  by  the 
mendicant  monks.  These  latter  chant  the  litanies 
of  Buddha  from  house  to  house,  and  travel  through- 
out the  Empire,  finding  food  and  lodging  by  the  way- 
side,  to  collect  the  scanty  contributions  which  their 
solicitations  evoke.  The  four  great  monasteries  are 
presided  over  by  a member  of  the  community,  who 
is  elected  annually  to  the  office.  Unless  his  conduct 
gives  rise  to  dissatisfaction,  he  is  maintained  in 
authority,  usually  until  his  death,  or  transference  to 
some  other  centre  of  Buddhistic  activity.  The 

88 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 


practices  and  observances,  in  these  monasteries  of 
the  Diamond  Mountains,  conform  to  the  principles 
of  the  religion  of  Buddha,  as  nearly  as  do  the 
customs  and  manners  of  our  own  Church  to  the 
varied  tenets  of  Christianity  throughout  the  world. 

I confess  myself  sorely  puzzled  to  discover  any 
substratum  of  truth  in  the  charges  of  gross  profli- 
gacy and  irreverence  which  the  agent  of  an  American 
Missionary  Society  brings  against  the  monasteries 
of  the  Keum-kang-san.  Personally,  after  spend- 
ing many  weeks  in  the  calm  seclusion  of  this 
monastic  region,  I prefer  to  recall  the  kindliness  of 
the  monks  — their  real  Christian  charity  — to  the 
poor  and  afflicted,  to  the  hungry  and  sore  dis- 
tressed, as  to  all  who  come  to  them  in  times  of 
misery  and  evil.  If  many  of  them  learn  the  lit- 
anies of  their  liturgy  by  heart,  if  they  lack  scholar- 
ship, if  they  do  not  know  the  meaning  of  much  upon 
which  they  spend  so  many  weary  hours  of  their  lives, 
are  not  these  slight  things  when  weighed  against 
their  profound  humanity,  their  gentleness  to  every- 
thing which  breathes,  their  benevolence  to  the  old 
and  destitute,  their  exceeding  humility,  their  won- 
derful toleration,  the  quietness  and  extreme  sim- 
plicity of  their  lives,  and  the  humanitarian  nature 
of  their  interests? 

The  Monastery  of  Yu-chom  is  all  peace  and  quie- 
tude. It  lies,  shut  off  from  all  contact  with  the  outer 
world,  within  a deep,  tree-clad  valley  of  the  eastern 
ranges.  It  is  self-contained,  and  its  whole  exist- 
ence is  wrapped  up  in  the  mysteries  of  that  faith  to 

89 


KOREA 


whose  services  it  is  dedicated.  There  is  no  booming 
torrent,  such  as  that  which  vibrates  and  thunders 
through  the  Chang-an-sa  gorge;  a subdued  babble 
alone  rises  from  the  water,  which  wells  from  some 
rocks  deep  in  the  recesses  of  the  prevailing  bush. 
Its  appearance  is  strangely  solemn,  and  it  exerts 
over  the  daily  lives  of  the  coterie  of  monks,  assembled 
within  its  walls,  an  influence  that  conduces  to  their 
extreme  asceticism.  The  atmosphere  of  repose  and 
seclusion,  in  which  a soul  distressed  finds  so  much 
comfort,  broods  over  the  whole  community. 

The  most  imposing  of  the  thirty-four  Buddhist 
retreats  within  the  Diamond  Mountains  is  Yu- 
chom-sa.  It  may  be  approached  from  the  western 
side  of  the  Keum-kang-san  by  climbing  the  rocky 
path  of  the  Chang-an-sa  gorge,  and  crossing  the 
watershed  through  the  An-man-chai  Pass,  4215  feet 
in  height.  The  descent  is  made  by  a rough  and 
picturesque  track  through  deep  woods  to  the  clus- 
ter of  temples  upon  the  eastern  face  of  the  range. 
Another  way,  which,  after  a short  detour  from  Chang- 
an-sa,  is  an  easier  route,  lies  over  the  Pu-ti-chong 
Pass,  3700  feet  in  height;  after  winding  through 
some  miles  of  forest,  it  drops  directly  upon  a track, 
which  leads  to  the  gates  of  the  monastery.  Each 
road  starts  from  Chang-an-sa,  and  the  crossing  of 
the  mountains  must  be  undertaken  by  all  who  wish 
to  visit  the  monasteries  upon  the  eastern  slopes. 
The  journey  in  either  direction  can  be  accomplished 
within  eight  hours;  the  difficulties  of  the  bed  of 
the  Chang-an-sa  torrent  render  this  route  impass- 

90 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 


able  to  horses,  etc.  Lightly-loaded  ponies  can  be 
taken  across  the  Pu-ti-chong.  The  hire  of  coolies  is 
recommended  and  one  Korean  dollar  for  each  man 
is  the  tariff. 

The  temples  of  Yu-chom-sa  are  very  similar  to 
those  at  Chang-an-sa.  They  are,  however,  more 
numerous  and  more  richly  endowed.  Before  the 
steps  of  the  main  temple  there  is  a small  granite 
pagoda,  whose  graceful  proportions  give  an  element 
of  dignity  to  the  spacious  courtyard  upon  which 
the  principal  temples  of  the  monastery  abut.  The 
altar  of  this  temple  is  adorned  by  a singular  piece 
of  wood-carving.  Upon  the  roots  of  an  upturned 
tree  sit  or  stand  fifty-three  diminutive  figures  of 
Buddha.  The  monks  tell  an  old-world  legend  of 
this  strange  structure.  Many  centuries  ago,  fifty- 
three  priests,  who  had  journeyed  from  India  to 
Korea  to  introduce  the  precepts  of  Buddha  into  this 
ancient  land,  sat  down  by  a well  beneath  a spread- 
ing tree.  Three  dragons  presently  emerged  from 
the  depths  of  the  well  and  attacked  the  fifty-three, 
calling  to  their  aid  the  wind-dragon,  who  thereupon 
uprooted  the  tree.  As  the  fight  proceeded,  the 
priests  managed  to  place  an  image  of  Buddha  upon 
each  root  of  the  tree,  converting  the  whole  into  an 
altar,  under  whose  influence  the  dragons  were  forced 
back  into  their  cavernous  depths,  when  huge  rocks 
were  piled  into  the  well  to  shut  them  up.  The 
monks  then  founded  the  monastery,  building  the 
main  temple  above  the  remains  of  the  vanquished 
dragons.  Upon  each  side  of  the  fantastic  altar- 

91 


KOREA 


piece  there  is  a carved  design  of  lotus  leaves  several 
feet  in  width  and  height;  at  the  feet  of  an  immense 
image  of  the  divine  Buddha,  golden  and  bejewelled, 
which  graces  the  centre  of  the  shrine,  are  several 
magnificent  bronze  bowls  of  vast  size,  weight,  and 
antiquity.  Blue  and  red  silk-gauze  draperies,  serv- 
ing the  purpose  of  a screen,  hang  from  the  massive 
beams  in  the  roof. 

The  figures  seen  in  Korean  temples  are  reproduced 
in  Buddhist  temples  throughout  Asia,  the  supreme 
and  central  form  being  that  of  Sakya-muni  or 
Buddha.  In  the  sculpture  and  artistic  development 
of  this,  the  central  figure  of  their  pantheon,  there  is 
little,  if  any,  deviation  from  the  conventional  tra- 
ditions of  India,  Siam,  Thibet,  and  Mongolia.  The 
sage  is  crouching  on  his  knees  with  the  soles  of  his 
feet  turned  upward  to  the  face;  the  palms  and  fingers 
of  his  hands  pressed  together;  the  eyes  are  slightly 
oblique,  and  the  lobes  of  the  ears  somewhat  bul- 
bous. The  throne  consists  of  the  open  calyx  of  a 
lotus  flower,  the  symbol  of  eternity.  The  splen- 
dour of  the  figures  in  the  Temple  of  the  Tree  of 
Buddha  is  noticeable;  and  the  lustre  of  the  hea\’y 
gilding  gleams  from  about  the  altar  into  the  dimness 
and  uncertain  light  of  the  vast  chamber  like  the  rays 
of  some  spiritual  fire.  Devotional  exercises  never 
cease  in  this  House  of  the  Ever-Supreme  Lord,  the 
services  and  constant  offering  of  prayer  being  taken 
in  turn  by  the  officiating  priests.  At  these  moments, 
when  the  lonely  figure  of  the  priest  is  seen  pleading 
with  the  Ever-Supreme  Lord,  in  his  most  sacred 

92 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 


Temple  and  before  his  most  sacred  shrine,  for  the 
grace  of  forgiveness,  the  scene  is  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  solemnity.  As  the  chant  rises  and 
falls  in  the  great  spaces  of  the  hall  and  the  swaying 
figure  rocks  in  the  despair  of  his  passionate  self- 
abandonment,  the  sympathies  and  emotions  are 
strangely  stirred.  The  stages  of  the  services  are 
marked  by  blows  upon  a bell  which  the  priest  holds 
before  him,  the  while  he  casts  himself  upon  his 
face  and  kneels  before  the  resplendent  Buddha. 

The  chief  celebrations  of  the  day  and  night  in 
Yu-chom-sa  are  accompanied  by  the  booming  of 
the  great  bronze  bell  — an  elaborate  casting  of  the 
fourteenth  century  — and  by  the  beating  of  a large 
circular  drum  many  feet  in  circumference.  Both 
instruments  stand  in  their  own  towers  in  the  court- 
yard. During  the  minor  services,  the  genuflections 
of  the  priests  are  accompanied  by  the  jarring  notes 
of  the  small  brass  bells,  which  they  strike  repeatedly 
with  deer-horns.  A magniflcent  figure  of  Buddha 
sits  in  the  Temple  of  the  Lotus  Blossom,  in  an  atti- 
tude of  impassive  benignity  behind  a screen  of 
glass,  looking  solemnly  upon  the  devotions  and  pious 
exercises  of  his  faithful  attendants.  This  altar  is 
recessed,  the  entire  shrine  being  protected  by  plates 
of  glass,  and  the  offerings  of  rice,  which  are  presented 
to  the  altar  for  benediction,  stand  without  the  screen. 
Among  other  temples  and  shrines  at  Yu-chom-sa 
there  are  the  House  of  Everlasting  Life,  the  Temple 
of  the  Water  Month,  the  Temple  of  People  who 
come  from  the  West.  There  are  fifty  monks  in 

93 


KOREA 


Yu-chom-sa,  twelve  nuns,  and  eight  boys  who  have 
not  yet  been  admitted  to  the  order.  Many  of  the 
boys  in  these  monasteries  are  quite  young.  Some 
have  been  handed  over  by  their  parents  in  extreme 
infancy,  while  others  have  been  received  out  of  the 
wide  charity  of  the  Buddhists,  and  dedicated  to 
the  service  of  the  monasteries.  These  boys  appear 
intelligent.  They  are  taught  little  beyond  the 
different  chants  and  litanies,  with  the  words  of  which 
they  soon  become  familiar.  The  boys  are  clean  and 
well  fed;  but  the  monks,  if  equally  clean,  are  more 
sparing  in  their  diet.  Their  frugal  repast  consists 
of  rice  and  varieties  of  minced  vegetables,  cakes  of 
pine  nuts  glued  together  with  honey,  and  other  cakes 
of  popped  rice  and  honey.  The  extreme  richness 
of  the  dishes  soon  palls  upon  the  palate.  While 
managing  to  exist,  signs  of  emaciation  are  notice- 
able in  their  bodies  and  faces.  Among  the  nuns 
who  are  attracted  to  these  different  monasteries, 
there  are  many  who  have  entered  the  cloister  from 
religious  motives,  and  a few  who,  alone  in  the  world, 
find  it  a convenient  spot  in  which  to  pass  their  lives. 
Neither  class,  however,  encroaches  upon  the  relig- 
ious and  devotional  functions  of  the  monks,  but  lives 
entirely  apart,  existing  altogether  in  a world  of  their 
own  making. 

The  forms  of  religion  which  prevail  in  Korea 
to-day  are  Buddhism,  Confucianism,  and  Shaman- 
ism. Statements  of  ancient  Chinese  and  Japanese 
writers,  and  the  early  Jesuit  missionaries,  tend  to 
prove  that  the  worship  of  spirits  and  demons  has 

94 


MONKS  AND  MONASTERIES 

been  the  basis  of  national  belief  since  the  earliest 
times.  The  god  of  the  hills  is  even  now  the  most 
popular  deity.  Worship  of  the  spirits  of  heaven 
and  earth,  of  the  invisible  powers  of  the  air,  of  nature, 
of  the  morning  star,  of  the  guardian  genii  of  the  hills 
and  rivers,  and  of  the  soil  and  grain,  has  been  so 
long  practised  that,  in  spite  of  the  influences  of 
Confucianism,  and  the  many  centuries  in  which 
Buddhism  has  existed  in  the  land,  the  actual  wor- 
ship of  the  great  mass  of  the  people  has  undergone 
little  material  alteration.  However  widespread  this 
leaning  of  the  lower  classes  towards  demonolatry 
may  be,  the  philosophy  of  Confucius  has  been  from 
the  fifteenth  century  the  official  and  fashionable  cult 
in  Korea.  In  its  middle  period,  it  attained  to  that 
point  when  a religion,  which  at  first  was  fostered 
by  the  few  and  has  spread  gradually  until  it  became 
absorbed  by  the  people,  feels  itself  firmly  established, 
and  emphasises  its  ascendency  by  the  bigotry  of 
its  assertions,  its  tolerance,  and,  crowning  triumph 
of  all  usurping  tenets,  by  the  virulence  of  its  perse- 
cution. Confucianism  now  overspreads  the  whole 
peninsula.  From  the  fourth  to  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, when  the  religion  of  the  Enlightened  One  pre- 
vailed, it  was  studied  and  practised  only  by  the 
learned  classes.  Buddhism  predominated  through- 
out the  southern  half  of  the  peninsula,  and  only 
partially  leavened  the  northern  division  of  the 
Empire,  where  it  was  unable  to  combat  the  teachings 
of  Confucius.  Throughout  its  development,  how- 
ever, Buddhism  has  exercised  a potent  influence  in 

95 


KOREA 


Korean  affairs,  which  continued  until  the  close  of 
the  last  dynasty.  The  power  of  the  bonzes  at 
one  time  controlled  the  Court  and  nullified  the 
decrees  of  the  monarch.  During  its  pristine  suprem- 
acy it  became  the  strongest  and  most  formidable 
factor  in  the  education  of  the  country.  It  wielded 
unlimited  and  unrestricted  power,  while  it  guided 
the  political  and  social  revolutions  of  the  period. 
Great  respect  is  still  shown  to  the  tenets  of  Budd- 
hism in  Korea.  New  monasteries  and  temples  are  in 
process  of  construction  — the  Buddhist  priests  of 
Japan  and  Korea  making  common  cause  against  the 
activities  of  Western  missionaries.  All  things  con- 
sidered, Buddhism  has  left  such  a mark  upon  the 
history  of  the  little  kingdom  that,  although  the 
purely  ethical  character  of  the  teachings  of  Con- 
fucius be  acknowledged,  Korea  must  be  classed 
among  the  Buddhist  countries  of  the  earth. 


96 


CHAPTER  X 


ACROSS  KOREA 

The  peace,  piety,  and  sublime  earnestness  of 
the  monks  of  the  monasteries  of  Yu-chom 
and  Chang-an  is  in  startling  contrast  to 
the  state  of  things  at  Shin-ki-sa.  The  magnificence 
of  Yu-chom-sa,  and  the  charitable  benevolence  of 
Chang-an-sa,  engender  a mood  of  sympathetic  appre- 
ciation and  toleration  towards  those,  whose  lives 
are  dedicated  to  the  service  of  Buddha,  in  these 
isolated  retreats  of  the  Diamond  Mountains.  The 
spectacle  presented  by  the  monastery  at  the  north- 
eastern base  of  the  Keum-kang-san,  however,  reveals 
the  existence  of  certain  evils  which  happily  do  not 
disfigure  the  more  important  Buddhist  centres  in 
this  region.  It  is  not  time  which  alone  has  brought 
about  the  disorder;  nor  would  the  material  decay 
be  so  lamentable  if  the  dignity  and  charm  of  a pic- 
turesque ruin  were  not  lacking.  The  tone  of  the 
monks  here  is  totally  different.  Everything  is 
neglected,  and  every  one  is  indifferent  to  the  needs 
of  the  temples.  A litter  of  broken  tiles  lies  about 
the  buildings;  dirt  and  dust,  the  natural  conse- 
quences of  carelessness  and  neglect,  disgrace  them 
within.  The  spirit  of  reverence  is  wanting.  The 
scene  is  changed. 


97 


KOREA 


Shin-ki  is  a small  monastery.  Perhaps  its  temples 
have  never  been  comparable  with  the  shrines  of 
Yu-chom-sa  in  grace  and  beauty.  Nothing,  how’- 
ever,  can  excuse  the  disorder  and  neglect  of  its 
courtyards,  and  the  slovenliness  of  the  temple 
service.  There  seems  to  be  nothing  in  common 
between  this  and  those  other  monasteries,  which 
rest  within  the  heart  of  the  ranges.  One  looks  in 
vain  for  the  courtly  dignity  of  the  aged  Abbot  of 
Yu-chom-sa,  whose  humanitarian  spirit  was  so 
impressive.  The  principles  of  consideration,  polite- 
ness, and  devotion  that  govern  his  conduct  are  sadly 
lacking  in  the  Abbot,  the  priests,  and  monks  attached 
to  Shin-ki-sa.  The  contrast  is  indeed  great.  The 
most  painful  emotions  are  excited  by  the  decline 
which  has  taken  place  in  the  prosperity  of  the 
temples.  Anger  and  sorrow  fill  the  soul.  As  one 
gazes  beyond  the  temples  into  the  peace  and  beauty 
of  the  valley  below,  it  is  as  if  one  were  looking  across 
from  a place  of  abomination  into  another  and  a 
better  world.  The  colourless  skeleton  of  the  past 
alone  remains,  and  one  longs  for  the  power  to  restore 
the  fabric  to  its  former  self. 

In  its  setting  the  monastery  has  caught  something 
of  the  spirit  of  nature.  If  there  is  any  compensa- 
ting element  in  its  decadence,  it  is  found  in  the  wild 
beauty  of  the  rugged  mountains,  which  tower  above 
it  from  across  the  valley.  Beyond  their  granite 
faces  lie  the  trials  and  tribulations  of  the  outer 
world;  once  enclosed  within  their  grey  embrace  the 
little  ironies  of  life  disappear.  The  hours  are  cool 

98 


ACROSS  KOREA 

and  undisturbed.  Primeval  forests  adorn  the  deep 
gullies  of  the  ranges;  a flood  of  colour  comes  from 
the  open  spaces  where  wild  flowers  are  growing 
and  the  tints  of  the  woodland  foliage  disclose  an 
endless  variety  of  green.  In  the  centre  of  a patch, 
cleared  of  its  undergrowth  and  approached  by  a 
path  winding  through  deep  woods,  is  Mum-sa-am. 
This  retreat  is  given  over  to  the  twenty  nuns  who 
are  associated  with  Shin-ki-sa.  I know  nothing 
of  their  lives,  but  from  the  state  of  their  temples, 
and  the  roughness  and  disorder  of  their  surroundings, 
it  does  not  appear  to  me  that  they,  any  more  than 
the  sixty  priests,  monks,  and  boys  of  the  lower  mon- 
astery, find  the  tenets  of  Buddha  very  elevating, 
or  derive  much  satisfaction  from  the  surrounding 
scenery. 

The  history  of  our  days  in  the  more  important 
monasteries  of  the  Diamond  Mountains  was  unevent- 
ful. The  anxious  care  and  solicitude  of  the  monks 
for  the  welfare  of  their  guests  was  hourly  mani- 
fested, and  some  kindly  attention  was  shown  to  us 
at  every  possible  opportunity.  Cool  and  lofty 
quarters  were  allotted  for  our  entertainment;  the 
resources  of  the  monastery  were  placed  at  our  dis- 
posal. The  Abbot  of  Chang-an-sa  prepared  draughts 
of  honey-water  and  cakes  of  pine-seeds  for  our 
refreshment.  Every  morning  supplies  of  honey, 
rice,  and  flour,  and  small  bundles  of  fresh  vegetables 
were  brought  to  the  table;  throughout  the  day 
nothing  was  left  undone,  which,  in  the  minds  of 
these  simple  men,  would  be  conducive  to  our  com- 

99 


KOREA 


fort.  A deep  pool  in  the  tumbling  mountain- 
stream  was  reserved  for  our  use,  and  when,  in  the 
fresh  air  of  the  morning,  and  again  when  the  cool 
winds  of  the  evening  had  tempered  the  heat  of  the 
day,  we  went  to  bathe,  the  Abbot,  upon  his  own 
initiative,  arranged  that  we  should  be  left  in  undis- 
turbed possession  of  the  water-hole. 

The  Temple,  which  we  occupied  during  our  stay 
at  Chang-an-sa,  contained  The  Altar  of  the  Three 
Buddhas.  The  building  was  spacious  and  impres- 
sive. A wide  verandah  surrounded  it,  teak  pillars 
supported  a massive  roof;  scrolls  and  allegorical 
pictures,  illustrating  incidents  in  the  life  of  Buddha, 
decorated  the  wall.  Layers  of  oiled  paper  carpeted 
the  floor;  an  altar  cloth  of  silk,  richly  embroidered, 
small  mats,  bronze  incense  bowls  and  brass  cande- 
labra, embellished  the  altar,  in  the  centre  of  which 
was  a large  gilt  image  of  the  Three  Buddhas.  Every 
evening  at  sunset,  the  monks  who  ofiiciated  in  this 
Temple  placed  bowls  of  rice,  honey,  and  pine-seed 
cakes  upon  the  altar,  and  lighted  the  small  lamps 
and  candles  which  illuminated  it.  Prayers  were 
not  always  said,  nor  were  the  services  always  the 
same,  the  numbers  of  the  monks  varying  nightly 
according  to  the  character  of  the  special  office. 
When  the  services  concluded,  there  w^ere  many  wffio 
found  something  to  attract  them  in  our  small 
encampment.  They  gathered  round  the  kitchen; 
they  assisted  the  interpreter  to  cook,  and  tasted  his 
dishes.  They  handled  with  amazement  the  cook- 
ing utensils  of  a camp-kitchen,  the  cutlery  of  a 

100 


ACROSS  KOREA 


traveller’s  table.  Occasionally,  as  their  increasing 
familiarity  brought  about  some  small  degree  of 
intimacy  between  us,  the  monks  would  display  their 
beads  and  alms-bowls  for  our  inspection,  requesting 
our  acceptance  of  copies  of  their  books  in  return  for 
photographs  of  their  temples.  The  intricacies  of 
a camera  delighted  them,  the  appearance  of  a sport- 
ing rifle  created  consternation  in  their  breasts,  and 
they  were  never  tired  of  swinging  in  my  camp-bed. 

Before  the  camp  at  Chang-an-sa  was  shifted  to 
Yu-chom-sa,  a fast  friendship,  engendered  by  many 
kindly  acts  and  the  uninterrupted  expression  of  a 
thoughtful  consideration  for  our  needs,  sprung  up 
between  the  monks  and  ourselves.  They  consulted 
us  about  their  ailments,  which  usually  took  the  shape 
of  an  acute  attack  of  indigestion  or  a form  of  inter- 
mittent dysentery.  My  medicines  were  limited  to 
some  quinine  pills,  and  a bottle  of  fruit  salts;  they 
accepted  either  prescription  with  gratitude  and 
much  melancholy  philosophy.  But  although  they 
remained  always  the  same  well-disposed  visitors  to 
our  camp,  I noted  that  they  did  not  frequently 
present  themselves  as  candidates  for  treatment 
again.  When  the  moment  came  for  our  departure, 
many  small  gifts  w^ere  pressed  upon  us.  For  a long 
time,  too,  it  seemed  as  if  it  would  be  impossible 
to  obtain  an  account  of  our  indebtedness  to  the 
monastery.  In  the  end  the  persuasion  of  the  inter- 
preter prevailed.  WTien  w^e  added  to  the  reckoning 
a few  dollars  for  the  funds  of  the  monastery,  the 
expressions  of  gratitude  and  appreciation,  to  which 

101 


KOREA 


our  little  gift  gave  rise,  made  it  almost  possible  to 
believe  that  the  kindness  and  hospitality  shown 
had  been  all  on  our  side. 

Our  quarters  at  Yu-chom-sa  were  in  no  sense 
inferior,  and  none  the  less  delightful  in  their  situa- 
tion, to  those  which  we  left  behind  at  Chang-an-sa. 
The  guest-house  in  Yu-chom-sa  affords  views  of 
the  mountain  torrent  as  it  dashes  through  the  boul- 
der-strewn, tree-clad  slopes  of  the  valley.  At  Chang- 
an-sa  we  camped  beneath  the  protecting  eaves  of 
the  spacious  verandah  which  surrounds  the  Temple 
of  The  Three  Buddhas,  avoiding  whenever  possible 
any  general  use  of  the  sacred  edifice.  In  the  case 
of  Yu-chom-sa,  this  diflBdence  was  unnecessary;  the 
building  placed  at  our  disposal  being  that  usually 
set  aside  for  the  requirements  of  those  persons  of 
official  position  who  might  be  visiting  the  monastery. 
The  apartments  were  clean,  comfortable,  and  bright. 
They  were  hung  with  tablets,  upon  which  had  been 
inscribed  the  names  and  dignities  of  previous  vis- 
itors. High  walls  enclosed  the  buildings,  and  mas- 
sive gates  preserved  the  compound  from  unexpected 
intrusion.  The  life  in  these  encampments  is  one  of 
ideal  peace  and  happiness.  It  was  possible  to  work 
undisturbed  and  unprovoked  by  any  harrowing 
influences.  Indeed,  there  was  no  suggestion  of 
any  other  existence.  We  lived  in  the  seclusion  of 
a sanctuary,  where  mortal  misgivings  had  not  pene- 
trated, and  where  the  tribulations,  which  oppress 
mankind,  were  unknown. 

Beyond  Shin-ki-sa,  a journey  of  fifteen  li,  a well- 

102 


ACROSS  KOREA 

made  road  leads  east  north-east  to  the  coast,  which  it 
touches  at  Sydng-chik.  The  sight  and  scent  of  the 
sea,  after  the  exhausting  discomforts  of  Shin-ki-sa, 
was  peculiarly  welcome.  Between  Yu-chom-sa  and 
Shin-ki-sa  the  country  is  intersected  with  marshes 
and  rice-fields.  The  difficulties  of  marching  through 
these  bogs  and  mud-holes  greatly  impeded  the  horses. 
The  road  by  the  coast,  if  rough  and  stony  in  places, 
is  at  least  free  from  these  obstacles,  affording  a 
tortuous,  but  none  the  less  pleasant,  course.  Wend- 
ing across  basaltic  slopes,  ascending  their  smooth 
surfaces  by  a series  of  roughly-hewn  steps,  it  drops 
to  a level  of  burnished  sand.  A sweep  inland  to 
the  west  and  south-west  avoids  the  rugged  spurs  of 
a neighbouring  range.  The  sea  licks  the  white  sand 
with  gentle  murmurs  and  the  slight  breeze  scarcely 
ripples  the  blue  surface,  the  constant  variations, 
which  the  golden  sands  and  glittering  sea,  the  open 
valleys  and  green  hills  present,  adding  to  the  charm 
and  freshness  of  the  journey.  The  feeling  of  iso- 
lation, inseparable  from  travel  in  regions  where  the 
sense  of  freedom  is  shut  out  by  a world  of  enclosing 
mountains,  is  at  once  lost  in  contact  with  the  ocean 
and  the  ships  that  go  down  to  it.  Far  out,  in  the 
great  expanse  of  the  peaceful  sea,  were  fishing-boats, 
grey  junks,  hull  down  upon  the  horizon,  their  brown 
sails  bellying  spasmodically  in  the  fitful  gusts  of 
the  breeze.  In  the  shallows  off-shore  men,  brown 
and  naked,  dragged  for  herring  and  sprat  while 
their  children  gathered  crabs,  diving  after  their 
victims  in  the  deep  pools  with  screams  of  delight. 

103 


KOREA 


Around  the  hovels,  in  all  these  clusters  of  small 
villages  by  the  waves,  men  slept  in  the  blazing 
sunshine.  While  their  lords  reposed,  the  women 
mended  the  rents  in  the  nets,  or  busied  themselves 
in  constructing  crude  traps,  with  the  aid  of  which 
their  husbands  contrived  to  catch  fish.  The  aspect 
of  these  villages  upon  the  beach  w^as  not  inviting; 
and  they  did  not  compare  favourably  with  any  of 
the  inland  villages  through  which  we  had  passed. 
They  were  dirty,  tumble-down,  and  untidy;  the 
appearance  of  the  people  suggested  great  personal 
uncleanliness.  The  air  was  laden  with  the  smell  of 
fish  drying  in  the  sun  — of  itself  a pleasant  perfume, 
smacking  of  the  salt  of  the  sea  — but  here  so  mingled 
with  the  odours  of  decaying  offal,  piles  of  rubbish, 
and  varieties  of  fish  and  seaweed  in  different  stages 
of  decomposition  that  the  condensed  effluvium  was 
sickening.  The  people,  how’ever,  were  neither  curious 
nor  unkindly;  for  the  great  part  they  w’ere  indif- 
ferent, offering  baskets  of  fresh  eggs,  fish,  and  chick- 
ens readily  for  sale.  The  beach  by  these  villages  was 
black  with  rows  of  fish,  drying,  upon  the  white  sand, 
in  the  most  primitive  fashion.  The  art  of  smoking 
fish  is  unknowm,  and  the  careless  manner  in  which 
the  curing  is  done  proves  that  the  treatment  has 
neither  principle  nor  system.  Dogs  lay  upon  these 
row's  of  fish,  fow'ls  fed  undisturbed  off  them,  and,  in 
many  places,  men  slept  peacefully  with  a number  of 
them  heaped  together,  to  serve  as  pillows  for  their 
weary  heads.  Where  such  neglect  prevails,  it  is 
perhaps  not  unnatural  that  much  of  the  disease 

104 


ACROSS  KOREA 


among  the  Koreans  should  be  attributed  to  the 
dried  fish  which  they  eat  so  greedily. 

The  trade  in  salted  and  sun-dried  fish  is  extensive 
and  finds  its  way  all  over  the  kingdom;  an  overland 
traffic  of  considerable  importance  exists  with  the 
capital.  Strings  or  stacks  of  dried  fish  are  to  be 
seen  in  every  village.  Pack  ponies,  and  coolies 
laden  with  loads  of  dried  fish,  are  met  upon  every 
road  in  the  kingdom.  The  pedestrian  who  “humps 
his  own  swag”  almost  always  carries  a small  stock 
with  him.  The  parallel  industry  to  the  business 
of  curing  fish  is  the  operation  of  making  salt  from 
sea  water,  a pursuit  which  is  conducted  in  a manner 
equally  rough  and  casual.  In  both  of  these  indus- 
tries there  is  a crying  need  for  simple  technical 
instruction,  as  well  as  for  capital,  the  lack  of  which 
hinders  the  work  from  achieving  any  particular 
success.  There  is  so  much  fish  in  the  sea  along  the 
coast,  that,  if  the  catches  were  properly  treated,  the 
beginning  of  a prosperous  export  trade  could  be 
readily  laid.  At  the  present  only  a bare  sufficiency 
is  secured,  the  days  of  prosperity  not  yet  having 
begun  to  dawn.  The  industry  is  completely  para- 
lysed by  the  exactions  of  the  officials;  the  fishermen, 
like  the  peasants,  knowing  only  too  well  that  an 
immunity  from  the  demands  of  the  Y amen  is  found 
only  in  a condition  of  extreme  poverty. 

Many  fishing  villages  were  passed  through  in 
the  journey  from  the  Diamond  Mountains.  Each 
seemed  to  reflect  the  other,  the  sole  difference 
between  them  lying  in  their  size,  the  number  of 

105 


KOREA 


fishing-boats  drawn  up  on  the  beach,  the  strength 
and  density  of  their  smells.  The  poverty  and 
squalor  of  these  hamlets  was  astonishing.  The 
people  seemed  without  spirit,  content  to  live  an 
idle,  slatternly  existence  in  sleeping,  yawning,  and 
eating  by  turns.  Despite  offers  of  payment,  it 
was  impossible  to  secure  their  services  in  a day’s 
fishing,  although  they  generally  admitted  that  the 
boats,  nets,  and  lines  were  not  otherwise  engaged. 
As  the  outcome  of  this  spirit  of  indifference  among 
the  natives,  Japanese  fishermen  are  rapidly  secur- 
ing for  themselves  the  fishing-grounds  off  the  coast. 
Unless  these  dreary,  meditative,  and  dirty  people 
arouse  themselves  soon,  the  business  of  fishing  in 
their  own  waters  will  have  passed  altogether  from 
their  hands.  The  Japanese  catch  fish  at  all  sea- 
sons; the  Koreans  at  one  only  — when  it  suits 
them.  They  have  consequently  a diminishing  influ- 
ence in  a trade  so  exceedingly  profitable  that  some 
ten  thousand  Japanese  fishing-boats  subsist  by  it. 

The  filthy  condition  of  the  villages  renders  any 
stay  in  them  perilous.  It  is  wiser  to  camp  beyond 
them  in  the  open.  It  was  my  misfortune  to  stay  in 
several,  but  in  the  village  of  WTia-ding,  seventy -five 
li  from  Won-san,  the  virulence  and  variety  of  insects 
surpassed  all  my  experience  in  Australia,  America, 
Africa,  or  Asia.  Fleas  were  everywhere;  they  floated 
through  the  atmosphere,  much  as  the  north-west 
winds  of  New  Zealand  and  the  hot  winds  of  Africa 
drive  particles  of  fine  sand  through  the  air.  In 
this  case,  however,  nothing  remained  without  its 

106 


ACROSS  KOREA 


thin  penetrating  covering  of  fleas.  One  night  in 
Wha-ding  stands  out  as  the  most  awful  of  these 
experiences.  It  was  impossible  to  stand;  it  was 
impossible  to  sit;  sleep  was  out  of  the  question. 
We  shook  our  clothes;  we  bathed  and  washed  and 
powdered.  Every  effort  was  a torture,  and  each 
precaution  increased  the  ironies  of  the  situation. 
To  add  to  the  plagues  of  this  accursed  place,  we  were 
deafened  by  the  ear-splitting  incantations  of  a 
sorcerer,  who  had  been  hired  by  the  proprietor 
of  the  village  inn  to  exorcise  a devil  that  had 
bewitched  him.  We  wondered,  afterwards,  whether 
this  accounted  for  the  damnable  activity  among  the 
vermin.  After  a futile  attempt  to  come  to  terms 
with  the  magician  by  bribery  and  corruption  through 
the  medium  of  my  interpreter,  it  was  arranged  that 
one  of  the  grooms  should  represent  the  evil  spirit. 
He  passed  out  into  the  desolation  of  the  night  and 
howled  plaintively,  while  we,  having  collected  the 
elders  and  the  necromancer,  solemnly  fired  our  revol- 
vers into  the  darkness  at  the  departing  spirit.  Unfor- 
tunately, we  did  not  convince  the  wizard  that  the 
devil  had  been  expelled.  It  was  not  until,  losing  my 
temper  and  my  reason  together,  I dropped  his  gongs 
and  cymbals  down  a well,  depositing  him  in  it 
after  them,  that  we  were  rid  of  the  agonies  of  this 
additional  nuisance. 


107 


CHAPTER  XI 


DROUGHT  AND  STARVATION 

IT  is  difficult  for  us  to  understand  how  far- 
reaching  may  be  the  evils,  resulting  from  the 
complete  failure  of  the  rainfall,  in  countries 
where  the  population  relies  upon  it  for  their  daily 
bread.  A brief  mention,  in  the  Press,  of  the  lateness 
of  the  monsoon  gives  no  sign  of  the  anxiety  with 
which  many  millions  of  people  are  regarding  the 
approaching  harvest.  Water  means  life  to  the  rice- 
fields,  and  a drought  implies,  not  alone  the  failure 
of  a staple  crop,  but  famine,  with  disorder  and  star- 
vation, disease  and  death,  as  its  accompaniments. 
A drought  in  the  rice-fields  makes  a holocaust  of 
the  people  in  the  winter.  The  forces  of  law  and  order 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  of  India  place 
some  restraint  upon  the  populace.  In  the  Far  East, 
where  the  civil  administration  is  incompetent  to 
deal  with  the  exigencies  of  the  situation,  and  the 
systematic  dispensation  of  relief  is  unknown,  the 
decimation  of  the  population  and  the  complete 
upheaval  of  the  social  fabric  follows  closely  upon 
the  break-down  in  nature.  Indirectly,  too,  the 
consequences  of  famine  in  India  prove  this. 

An  even  more  emphatic  evidence  of  the  effects  of 
a drought,  where  the  population  live  upon  the  rice 

108 


DROUGHT  AND  STARVATION 


crop,  is  afiforded  by  the  appalling  loss  of  life  and  the 
grave  eruption  of  disorder,  which  took  place  in 
Korea  as  the  consequence  of  the  famine  in  1901. 
Widespread  ruin  overtook  the  country;  the  inland 
districts  were  thronged  with  mobs  of  desperate 
people.  Persons,  normally  peace-loving  and  law- 
abiding,  banded  together  to  harass  the  country-side, 
in  the  hope  of  extorting  sufficient  food  to  keep  their 
families  and  themselves  from  starvation.  Hunger 
drove  whole  communities  from  the  villages  to  the 
towns,  where  no  provision  for  their  welfare  existed. 
Anarchy  prevailed  throughout  the  country,  the  dire 
needs  of  the  population  goading  them  to  despera- 
tion. A horde  of  beggars  invaded  the  capital. 
Deeds  of  violence  made  the  streets  of  Seoul  unsafe 
after  darkness  fell,  and  bandits  carried  on  their 
depredations  openly  in  the  Metropolitan  Province. 
From  a peaceful  and  happy  land  of  sunshine 
and  repose,  Korea  was  transformed,  in  a few 
months,  into  a wilderness  of  misery,  poverty,  and 
unrest. 

The  measures  for  relief  were  quite  inadequate, 
and  although  rice  was  imported,  large  numbers  of 
the  people,  lacking  the  money  with  which  to  buy 
it,  starved  to  death.  The  absence  of  an  efficient 
organisation  in  the  faee  of  this  further  disaster 
increased  the  confusion.  Before  any  arrangements 
could  be  made  for  their  relief,  several  thousands 
had  died.  More  than  20,000  destitute  people  were 
discovered  in  Seoul,  out  of  a population  of  rather 
less  than  200,000.  Reports  from  the  provincial 

109 


KOREA 


centres  disclosed  a relapse  into  a state  of  absolute 
savagery  in  many  rural  districts.  Famine,  pesti- 
lence, and  death  stalked  abroad  in  Korea  for  months, 
and  many,  who  escaped  starvation,  lost  their  lives 
subsequently  in  the  great  wave  of  disease  which 
swept  over  the  land. 

It  is  impossible  to  believe  that  the  famine  would 
have  assumed  its  late  proportions  had  the  Govern- 
ment of  Korea  maintained  its  embargo  against  the 
exportation  of  cereals  from  the  country.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  withdrawal  of  this  prohibition 
contributed  to  the  scarceness  of  the  food-stuffs  which 
were  procurable  by  the  people,  when  their  straits 
were  most  severe.  Mortality  returns  from  the 
areas  devastated  by  the  famine  prove  that  the  wel- 
fare of  more  than  one  million  persons  was  affected. 
The  action  of  Japan,  therefore,  in  insisting  upon  the 
suspension  of  the  prohibition  in  order  that  the  inter- 
ests of  some  half-dozen  Japanese  rice  merchants 
might  not  suffer,  deserves  the  utmost  condenmation. 
The  primary  responsibility  for  this  great  loss  of  life 
rests  entirely  with  the  Japanese  Government.  In 
terrorising  the  Government  of  Korea  into  an  act, 
the  consequences  of  which  brought  death  to  one 
million  people,  the  Japanese  Government  committed 
themselves  to  a policy  which  traversed  alike  the 
dictates  of  reason  and  common  sense,  and  outraged 
every  principle  of  humanity.  The  impartial  observer 
must  hold  Korea  guiltless  in  this  matter.  It  is, 
indeed,  deplorable  that  the  vehement  opposition 
of  the  Korean  Government  was  not  respected. 

110 


DROUGHT  AND  STARVATION 


Nevertheless,  the  incident  is  valuable,  as  an  illus- 
tration of  the  objectionable  attitude  which  at  one 
time  distinguished  the  Government  of  Japan  in  its 
relations  with  Korea. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  drought  the  inhabitants 
of  Seoul  believed  that  the  Rain  God  was  incensed. 
The  Emperor  and  his  Court  offered  expiatory  sac- 
rifices upon  three  occasions.  As  the  rains  were 
still  withheld  a period  of  penance  was  proclaimed, 
in  which  prayers  and  fastings  were  ordained,  the 
populace  ceasing  from  every  form  of  labour  and 
relapsing  into  a condition  of  supreme  idleness. 
Unhappily,  while  the  great  mass  of  the  people 
refrained  from  work,  the  Emperor  continued  to 
employ  many  hundreds  of  labourers  upon  the  con- 
struction of  the  new  Palace  buildings.  This  pro- 
ceeding was  held  by  the  superstitious  subjects  of 
His  Majesty  to  account  for  the  singular  inclemency 
of  the  Rain  Demon,  and  some  anxiety  was  felt  in 
the  capital  lest  the  usual  calm  of  the  city  should  be 
broken  by  riots.  These  horrors  were  spared  to 
Seoul,  however,  by  the  fortuitous  visitation  of  a 
passing  shower.  Men  and  women  resumed  their 
toil,  rejoicing  in  the  belief  that  the  evil  influences 
had  been  overcome.  It  was,  however,  but  a brief 
respite  only  that  w’as  granted.  In  a short  time  the 
drought  prevailed  throughout  the  land,  drying  up 
the  rice-fields,  scorching  the  pastures,  and  wither- 
ing the  crops.  Under  this  baneful  visitation,  the 
circumstances  of  the  people  became  very  straitened. 
Hundreds  were  reduced  to  feeding  on  the  wild  roots 

111 


KOREA 


and  grass  of  the  wayside,  and  isolated  cases  of 
cannibalism  were  reported. 

In  a rice-growing  country  such  as  this  is,  it  is 
essential  that  an  adequate  supply  of  rain  should  fall 
during  the  three  summer  months  to  allow  of  the 
seed-rice  being  transplanted  and  to  ensure  the  matur- 
ing of  the  grain.  In  1901,  owing  to  the  lack  of  water, 
the  bulk  of  the  seed-rice  was  never  transplanted  at 
all.  It  simply  withered  away. 

It  is,  of  course,  inevitable  that  one  of  the  immediate 
results  of  famine  should  be  a general  increase  of 
mortality  throughout  the  country.  The  impover- 
ished condition,  to  which  so  many  thousands  of 
Koreans  were  reduced,  weakened  their  constitu- 
tions so  seriously  that,  in  many  cases,  even  those 
who  were  fortunate  enough  to  escape  starvation 
found  their  powers  fatally  impaired.  There  were 
many  whose  inanition  and  general  debility,  result- 
ing from  their  deprivations,  had  rendered  them 
peculiarly  susceptible  to  disease.  More  particularly 
was  this  the  case  in  the  inland  districts. 

Under  normal  conditions,  malaria  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  common  disease  in  Korea.  It  prevails  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  but  it  is  specifically  localised  in 
sections  where  there  are  numerous  rice-fields.  Small- 
pox is  nearly  always  present,  breaking  out  in  epi- 
demic form  every  few  years.  Nearly  all  adults, 
and  most  children  over  ten  years,  will  be  found  to 
have  had  it.  Leprosy  is  fairly  prevalent  in  the 
southern  provinces,  but  it  spreads  very  slowly. 
While  this  disease  presents  all  the  characteristics 

112 


DROUGHT  AND  STARVATION 


described  in  the  text-books,  the  almost  impercept- 
ible increase,  which  distinguishes  its  existence  in 
Korea,  is  strong  presumptive  evidence  that  it  is 
non-inf  ectious. 

The  great  enemy  of  health  is  the  tubercle  bacillus. 
The  want  of  ventilation,  the  absence  of  sanitation, 
and  the  smallness  of  the  houses,  foster  this  little 
germ.  Tubercular  and  joint  diseases  are  common; 
also  fistula,  hare-lip,  diseases  of  the  eye,  throat,  and 
ear.  The  most  common  disease  of  the  eye  is  cat- 
aract; of  the  ear,  suppuration  of  the  middle  drum, 
in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  result  of  small-pox 
in  childhood.  Cases  of  nasal  polypi  are  also  very 
numerous.  Hysteria  is  fairly  common,  while  epi- 
lepsy and  paralysis  are  among  other  nervous  dis- 
orders which  are  encountered.  Indigestion  is  almost 
a national  curse,  the  habit  of  eating  rapidly  large 
quantities  of  boiled  rice  and  raw  fish  promoting 
this  scourge.  Toothache  is  less  frequent  than  in 
other  countries;  diphtheria  and  typhoid  are  very 
rare,  and  scarlet  fever  scarcely  exists.  Typhus, 
malarial  remittent  fever,  and  relapsing  fever  are  not 
uncommon.  Venereal  disease  is  about  as  general 
as  it  used  to  be  in  England. 

In  short,  there  is  a preponderance  of  diseases 
which  result  from  filthy  habits,  as  also  of  those  pro- 
duced by  the  indifferent  qualities  of  the  food,  and 
the  small  and  overcrowded  houses.  Most  of  the 
diseases  common  to  humanity  present  themselves 
for  treatment  in  Korea. 


113 


CHAPTER  XII 


THE  MISSIONARY  QUESTION 

The  history  of  missionary  enterprise  in  Korea 
abounds  in  illustrations  of  the  remarkable 
manner  in  which  French  missionaries  may  be 
relied  upon  to  offer  up  their  lives  for  their  country. 
It  may  be  cynical  to  say  so,  yet  there  is  much  reason 
to  believe  that  the  Roman  Catholic  priests  in  the 
Far  East  of  to-day  are  the  agents  provocateurs  of 
their  Government.  They  promote  anarchy  and 
outrage,  even  encompassing  their  own  deaths,  when- 
ever the  interests  of  their  country  demand  it.  From 
the  beginnings  of  Christianity  in  China  they  have 
wooed  the  glory  of  martyrdom,  and  they  have 
repeated  the  process  in  Korea. 

Christianity  made  its  way  into  Korea  about  1777, 
by  the  chance  arrival  of  a packet  of  translations  in 
Chinese  of  the  works  of  the  Jesuits  in  Pekin.  From 
this  small  beginning  the  ideas  spread,  until  the 
King’s  Preceptor  was  compelled  to  fulminate  a 
public  document  against  this  new  belief.  Finding 
this  insufficient,  examples  were  made  of  prom- 
inent enthusiasts.  Many  were  tortured;  and 
others  condemned  to  perpetual  exile.  Persecu- 
tion continued  until  1787;  but  the  work  of  prose- 
lytism  proceeded,  despite  the  injurious  attentions 

114 


THE  MISSIONARY  QUESTION 

which  converts  received  from  the  public  execu- 
tioners. 

The  first  attempt  of  a foreign  missionary  to  enter 
Korea  was  made  in  1791.  It  was  not  until  three 
years  later,  however,  that  any  Western  evangelist 
succeeded  in  evading  the  vigilance  of  the  border 
sentinels.  Where  one  came  others  naturally  fol- 
lowed, undeterred  by  the  violent  deaths  which  so 
many  of  these  intrepid  Christians  had  suffered. 
While  the  French  missionaries  were  prosecuting 
their  perilous  labours,  in  the  face  of  the  undisguised 
hostility  of  the  great  proportion  of  the  people,  and 
losing  their  lives  as  the  price  of  this  work,  the  walls 
of  isolation  which  Korea  had  built  around  herself 
were  gradually  sapped.  Ships  from  France,  Russia, 
and  Great  Britain  touched  her  shores  during  their 
explorations  and  trading  ventures  in  the  Yellow 
Sea.  Under  the  association  of  ideas  which  sprang 
from  the  appearance  of  these  strange  ships,  the 
Koreans  grew  accustomed  to  the  notion  that  their 
world  was  not  limited  by  the  resources  of  their  own 
country  and  the  more  distant  territories  of  China. 
However,  judging  the  sailors  who  fell  into  their  hands 
by  the  standards  of  the  French  priests,  who  had 
set  every  law  in  the  land  at  defiance,  they  at  once 
killed  them.  This  practice  continued  until  1866, 
when  word  reached  the  Admiral  of  a French  squad- 
ron at  Tientsin  of  the  slaughter  of  his  compatriots 
in  Korea.  Upon  the  receipt  of  the  news,  an  expedi- 
tion was  prepared,  of  itself  an  early  manifestation 
of  that  policy  by  which  the  French  Government  is 

115 


KOREA 


inspired  in  its  dealings  with  missionaries  and  mis- 
sionary questions  in  countries,  the  development  of 
whose  geographical  or  industrial  peculiarities  may 
be  turned  to  advantage. 

For  many  centuries  the  land  was  without 
any  accepted  religious  doctrine.  Buddhism,  which 
existed  for  one  thousand  years  before  the  present 
dynasty  came  to  the  throne,  had  fallen  into  dis- 
favour; the  tenets  of  Confucius  did  not  completely 
satisfy  the  minds  of  the  upper  classes,  and  Shaman- 
ism was  the  worship  of  the  more  primitive  masses. 
The  moment  was  ripe  for  the  introduction  of  a more 
practical  philosophy,  and  in  time,  as  the  gospel  of 
Christianity  spread,  opposition  to  the  great  creed 
of  humanitarianism  lessened.  Toleration  of  the 
many  phases  of  Western  belief  is  now  general,  the 
Korean  finding  in  the  profession  of  Christianity  an 
easy  means  of  evading  the  exactions  of  the  oflBcials. 
Nevertheless,  the  diffusion  of  Christianity  is  not 
unattended  with  bloodshed  and  disaster.  Apart 
from  this  drawback  to  the  propagation  of  Christian 
beliefs  in  Korea,  it  may  be  doubted  whether  the 
methods  of  the  various  missionary  bodies  bear  the 
impress  of  that  spirit  of  charity  which  should  illus- 
trate their  teaching.  Without  impugning  the  indi- 
vidual attainments  of  any  of  the  many  missionary 
groups  who  administer  to  the  needs  of  the  Koreans, 
I find  it  difficult  to  affirm  that  the  principles  of  self- 
abnegation  so  manifest  in  the  lives  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  priests  and  the  workers  of  the  Church  of 
England  Mission  are  equally  in  evidence  in  the 

116 


THE  MISSIONARY  QUESTION 

comfortable  existence  which  is  led  by  the  well- 
paid  attaches  of  the  American  Mission  Boards.  The 
French  priests  live  in  abject  poverty;  striving  to 
identify  themselves  with  the  conditions  of  their  flock, 
they  accept  neither  holiday  nor  reward  as  compen- 
sation for  their  services.  In  this  bare  comparison  of 
the  principles  of  ministration,  I do  not  wish,  at  the 
moment,  to  venture  into  the  domain  of  controversy, 
but  merely  to  convey  some  impression  of  the  com- 
peting systems  of  procedure. 

The  Church  of  England  Mission,  which  has  become 
known  as  the  English  Mission,  under  the  direction 
of  Bishop  Corfe  has  adopted  a system  of  commu- 
nism. The  expenses  of  board,  lodging,  clothing, 
laundry,  and  fuel  are  met  from  a common  fund, 
quarterly  remitted  from  the  Mission  Treasurer  to 
the  responsible  head  of  each  Mission  House.  In 
proportion  to  the  number  of  residents,  the  expendi- 
ture is  returnable  upon  a pro  rata  calculation  of 
about  £70  per  head  per  annum.  This  estimate 
includes  the  cost  of  the  male  staff.  The  propor- 
tionate rate  of  expenditure  in  respect  of  the  lady 
workers  of  the  English  Mission  is  one-third  of  this 
annual  disbursement  less.  The  depots  of  the  Mis- 
sion are  situated  at  Seoul,  Chemulpo,  Mok-po,  and 
Kang-wha;  in  addition  to  the  stations  in  Korea,  a 
chaplaincy  is  maintained  in  New-chwang.  The  chief 
centre  of  activity  of  this  Mission  is  upon  the  island 
of  Kang-wha.  The  task  of  improving  the  con- 
dition of  the  very  poor,  by  means  of  education, 
kindness,  and  patience,  proceeds  quietly  at  Che- 

117 


KOREA 


mulpo  and  Seoul  too,  where  particular  attention  is 
given  to  the  welfare  of  the  sick.  At  one  time,  there 
were  important  dispensary  and  hospital  institutes 
in  these  places;  the  medical  establishment  at 
Chemulpo,  however,  is  now  abandoned. 

The  members  of  this  Mission  endure  no  little 
privation  in  the  primitive  simplicity  of  their  sur- 
roundings. Their  services,  on  the  other  hand, 
display  much  unnecessary  pomp;  and  the  white, 
full-skirted  cassock  with  rough  hempen  girdle,  which 
they  wear  in  public  and  private,  emphasises  their 
ritualistic  tendencies,  and  is,  to  my  mind,  somewhat 
of  an  affectation.  Nevertheless,  in  their  daily  prac- 
tice, those  associated  with  the  Church  of  England 
Mission  in  Korea  set  before  themselves  that  standard 
of  idealism  in  missionary  enterprise  which  is  repre- 
sented by  the  unnecessary  sacrifices,  the  sublime 
heroism,  and  fortitude  distinguishing  the  priests  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  a standard,  I am  com- 
pelled to  admit,  that  other  missions  in  the  Far 
East  — American,  English,  Scotch,  and  Irish  — 
appear  incapable  of  realising. 

The  American  missionary  in  the  Far  East  is  a 
curious  creature.  He  represents  a union  of  devices 
which  have  made  him  a factor  of  considerable  com- 
mercial importance.  American  missionaries  in  Korea 
were  formerly  closely  associated  with  the  more 
important  export  houses  in  the  leading  industrial 
centres  of  America.  Owing  to  diplomatic  represen- 
tation this  practical  demonstration  of  Western 
superiority  is  no  longer  openly  indulged.  In  Seoul, 

118 


THE  MISSIONARY  QUESTION 

however,  an  American  missionary  inconsiderately 
receives  paying  guests,  causing  a manifest  loss  of 
business  to  the  Station  Hotel;  in  Won-san,  another 
exploits  his  orchard.  As  a class  they  are  neces- 
sarily newspaper  correspondents  and  professional 
photographers;  upon  rare  occasions  — and  here 
I refer  especially  to  a small  coterie  of  American 
missionaries  in  Seoul  — they  are  the  scholarly 
students  of  the  history,  manners,  customs,  and 
language  of  the  country  in  which  they  happen  to 
be  placed. 

The  American  missionary  has  a salary  which 
frequently  exceeds  £200  a year,  and  is  invariably 
pleasantly  supplemented  by  additional  allowances. 
Houses  and  servants  are  provided  free,  or  grants 
are  made  for  house  rent;  there  is  a provision  for  the 
education  of  the  children,  and  an  annual  capitation 
payment  is  made  for  each  child.  As  a class,  Amer- 
ican missionaries  have  large  families,  who  live  in 
comparative  idleness  and  luxury.  In  Korea,  they 
own  the  most  attractive  and  commodious  houses  in 
the  foreign  settlements,  and  appear  to  me  to  extract 
from  their  surroundings  the  maximum  of  profit  for 
the  minimum  of  labour.  I do  not  know  whether 
it  is  with  the  permission  of  the  executive  officers 
of  the  American  Mission  Boards  that  their  repre- 
sentatives combine  commerce  wdth  their  mission 
to  the  heathen.  When  a missionary  devotes  no 
little  portion  of  his  time  to  literary  labours,  to  the 
care  of  an  insurance  agency,  to  the  needs  of  a fruit 
farm,  or  to  the  manifold  exigencies  of  casual  com- 

110 


KOREA 


merce,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  interests  of  those 
who  sit  in  darkness  must  suffer. 

American  mission  agents  have  made  Korea  their 
peculiar  field.  Converts,  who  prattle  of  Christian- 
ity in  a marked  American  accent,  are  among  the 
features  of  the  capital  in  the  twentieth  century. 
Mission  centres,  which  have  been  created  in  a num- 
ber of  places,  now  show  signs  of  prosperity.  They 
enlist  no  little  practical  sympathy  and  support  from 
the  native  population.  The  self-supporting  char- 
acter of  much  of  the  missionary  work  in  Korea 
bears  out  the  spirit  of  toleration  which  distin- 
guishes the  attitude  of  the  people  towards  the  prop- 
aganda. It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  work  of 
the  missionaries  is  agreeable  to  all  shades  of  native 
opinion.  Riots  and  bloodshed  disfigure  the  path 
of  proselytism,  the  credulity  of  the  natives  entailing 
heavy  sacrifices  of  life.  The  disturbances  which 
have  thus  marked  the  spread  of  Christianity  in 
Korea,  notably  in  the  anti-Christian  rising  in  Quel- 
part,  a few  years  ago,  are  due  to  the  jealousy  with 
which  the  heathen  mass  of  the  population  regard 
the  protection  from  official  capacity,  enjoyed  by 
those  who  accept  The  Light. 

In  the  case  of  Quelpart,  this  feeling  of  animosity, 
and  the  immunity  from  taxation  which  the  French 
priests  gave  to  their  following,  created  an  intoler- 
able position.  Anarchy  swept  over  the  island,  and 
some  six  hundred  believers  were  summarily  put  to 
death.  Whatever  may  be  the  compensating  advan- 
tages of  this  martyrdom,  the  reckless  and  profligate 

120 


THE  MISSIONARY  QUESTION 

sacrifice  of  life,  which  missionary  indiscretion  in  the 
Far  East  has  promoted,  is  an  outrage  upon  modern 
civilisation.  We  have  passed  through  one  terrible 
anti-Christian  upheaval  in  China,  and,  if  we  wish  to 
avoid  another  such  manifestation,  it  is  necessary  to 
superintend  all  forms  of  missionary  enterprise  more 
closely.  This,  however,  can  be  done  only  by  legis- 
lative supervision,  imposing  restraint  in  the  direction 
which  recent  events  have  indicated.  It  is  imper- 
ative that  certain  measures  should  be  adopted  in 
missionary  work  which  will  ensure  the  safety  of 
the  individual  zealot,  and  be  agreeable  to  the  general 
comfort  of  the  community.  It  is  unfortunate,  but 
inevitable,  that  such  reforms  must  be  radical.  The 
violence  of  missionary  enterprise  during  recent  years 
has  been  altogether  unbridled.  The  great  activity 
of  the  different  societies,  resulting  from  their  unre- 
stricted liberty,  has  recoiled  most  fatally  upon  the 
more  indefatigable,  as  well  as  upon  the  heads  of 
many  wholly  innocent  of  any  unwarrantable  relig- 
ious persecution.  The  time  has  come,  therefore, 
when  vigorous  restrictions  should  chasten  this  vig- 
orous, polemical  proselytism.  The  practice  of  scat- 
tering missionaries  broadcast  over  the  interior  of 
these  Far  Eastern  countries  should  not  continue; 
the  assent  of  the  local  Consul  and  a representative 
couneil  of  the  Foreign  Ministers  should  be  required 
in  every  ease.  Moreover,  it  would  be  wiser,  if, 
under  no  coneeivable  circumstances,  single  women 
were  permitted  to  proselytise  beyond  the  carefully 
preseribed  treaty  limits  of  the  different  settlements. 

121 


KOREA 


Again,  missionaries  with  families,  as  well  as  single 
women,  should  not  be  allowed  to  live  beyond  the 
areas  of  these  neutral  zones. 

These  restraints  upon  missionary  labours  will,  of 
course,  be  resented.  If  the  total  number  of  lives 
which  have  been  lost  in  Korea,  China,  and  Japan,  by 
the  interference  of  Western  missionaries,  were  pub- 
lished, their  vast  aggregate  would  reveal  to  the 
unthinking  masses  of  the  public  how  urgent  is  the 
need  for  strong  action.  Such  restraint  is  morally 
justifiable  by  the  appalling  massacres  with  which 
the  world  is  now  familiar.  The  blind  perseverance 
of  the  missionary  has  frequently  brought  about  the 
simultaneous  baptism  and  crucifixion  of  the  convert. 
What  more  does  the  fanatical  enthusiast  wish  than 
that  some  one  should  be  thus  doubly  glorified  by  his 
means  The  increasing  death-roll  among  masters 
and  pupils  supplies  the  only  necessary  argument 
for  immediate  rectification  of  the  entire  system  of 
missionary  enterprise. 


122 


CHAPTER  XIII 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 

Travelling  in  the  inland  regions  of  Korea 
is  not  the  most  comfortable  pastime  which 
can  be  devised,  although  it  has  many  attrac- 
tions. The  lively  bustle  of  the  roads  gradually 
gives  place  to  the  passing  panorama  of  the  scenery, 
which  presents  in  constant  variation  a landscape 
of  much  natural  beauty,  with  hills  and  meadows, 
bush-clad  mountains  and  rice-fields,  rivers,  lakes, 
and  raging  torrents  as  prominent  features.  The 
shifting  camp  soon  leaves  the  outposts  of  civilisa- 
tion behind.  This  slow  passing  into  the  wilderness 
gives  a subtle  charm  to  the  journey.  Each  turn  of 
the  track  emphasises  the  desolation  of  the  ever- 
changing  scene.  The  wide  expanse  of  plains  and 
valleys  makes  way  for  the  depths  of  wild  and  gloomy 
forests,  where  the  ragged  mountain-paths  are  slip- 
pery and  dangerous.  The  ozone  of  a new  life  per- 
vades the  air.  There  is  no  doubt  that  such  moments 
seem,  for  the  time,  the  most  perfect  existence  imag- 
inable. Freedom  is  untrammelled  by  a care;  the 
world  for  the  day  is  comprised  within  a space  as 
great  as  can  be  seen.  Upon  the  morrow,  its  limita- 
tion is  only  a little  more  remote.  The  birds  of  the 
air,  the  beasts  of  the  field,  the  game  in  the  bushes, 

123 


KOREA 


supply  the  provender  of  the  camp.  Villages  pro- 
vide rice,  vegetables,  and  eggs,  the  hillside  springs 
give  water,  the  rivers  permit  bathing.  The  air  is 
pure,  and  the  whole  aspect  of  life  is  beautiful  and 
joyous. 

At  the  end  of  a trying  day,  one,  perhaps,  marred 
by  an  accident  to  an  animal,  trouble  with  the  native 
servants,  rain,  fog,  or  the  difficulties  of  the  track, 
there  is  the  evening  camp.  Those  hours  of  rest  and 
idleness,  when  the  horses  are  fed  and  groomed, 
packs  unswung,  the  camp-beds  slung  beneath  the 
mosquito  curtains,  and  the  evening  meal  prepared 
are  full  of  a supreme  sensation  of  contentment.  I 
have  always  loved  these  moments  of  peace,  accept- 
ing what  they  brought  as  the  best  that  life  held  for 
me  at  the  time.  At  such  an  hour  the  refinements  of 
civilisation  and  the  restrictions  of  convention  seem 
puerile  enough.  Moreover,  there  is  much  material 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  such  an  undertaking. 
The  trials  and  difficulties  develop  stability  of  charac- 
ter; the  risks  and  dangers  promote  resource  and 
self-reliance.  There  is  much  to  be  learnt  from  this 
contact  with  a human  nature  differing  so  radically 
from  the  prescribed  tjq)es  and  patterns  of  the  West- 
ern standard.  There  is  something  new  in  every 
phase  of  the  experience.  If  it  be  only  an  impression, 
such  as  I have  endeavoured  to  trace  in  these  few 
lines,  it  is  one  which  lingers  in  the  mind  long  after 
other  memories  have  faded. 

Preparation  for  an  inland  journey  of  any  extent 
takes  a considerable  time;  ponies  have  to  be  hired, 

124 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 

servants  engaged,  and  interpreters  secured.  It  is 
as  well  to  personally  examine  the  pack  ponies  which 
are  to  carry  the  loads.  Koreans  treat  their  animals 
shamefully,  and  the  missionaries  make  no  efforts 
to  lighten  the  lot  of  these  unhappy  beasts.  In 
consequence  of  the  carelessness  with  which  the  ponies 
are  treated  by  their  Korean  masters,  the  poor  little 
brutes  suffer  from  back-sores  larger  and  more  dread- 
ful than  anything  I have  seen  in  any  other  part  of 
the  globe.  If  the  Koreans  could  be  taught  the  rudi- 
ments of  horse-mastering  and  a more  humane  prin- 
ciple of  loading  and  packing  their  rough  saddles,  as 
well  as  some  practical  veterinary  knowledge,  the 
lot  of  the  unlucky  little  pony  of  the  capital  might 
be  softened.  But  the  spectacle  of  broken  knees, 
raw  necks,  bleeding  backs,  and  sore  heels  which 
these  poor  animals  present,  as  they  pass  in  quick 
succession  along  the  streets  of  Seoul,  is  revolting. 
The  American  missionaries  boast  so  much  of  their 
good  deeds  that  it  seems  strange  that  they  should 
neglect  such  a crjdng  evil  as  this.  There  is,  I pre- 
sume, no  credit  to  be  “gotten”  from  alleviating  the 
sufferings  of  a mere,  broken-down,  Korean  pack 
pony. 

Large  numbers  of  the  pack  ponies  of  Korea  come 
from  Quelpart.  They  are  diminutive  in  size,  little 
larger  than  the  Shetland  breed,  and  rather  smaller 
than  the  Welsh  pony.  They  are  usually  stallions, 
given  to  fighting  and  kicking  amongst  themselves, 
and  reputed  savage.  Their  wildness  is  aggravated 
through  a daily  irritation  by  the  rough  surfaces  of 

125 


KOREA 


their  pack  saddles  of  the  inflamed  swellings  on  their 
backs.  They  endure  longer  marches  and  shorter 
food  allowances  than  almost  any  other  species  of 
horse;  they  are  quick  in  their  gait,  very  strong  and 
willing,  good  feeders,  and  reveal  extraordinary  obsti- 
nacy, tenacity,  and  patience.  Much  of  the  pleasure 
in  my  travels  in  Korea,  however,  was  entirely  spoilt 
by  the  abominable  neglect  with  which  the  native 
grooms  treated  their  charges.  Their  dreadful  con- 
dition goaded  one  to  fury,  and  almost  daily  I remon- 
strated with  one  or  other  of  the  grooms  for  gross 
cruelty.  My  remarks  had  not  the  smallest  effect, 
however,  save  that  they  wore  me  out,  and  in  the 
end  I abandoned  my  expeditions  to  avoid  the  horrors 
of  such  spectacles.  The  Korean  is  quite  callous  to 
the  sufferings  of  his  animals.  He  will  feed  them 
well,  and  he  will  willingly  disturb  himself  at  night  to 
prepare  their  food;  but  he  will  not  allow  ulcerated 
and  running  wounds  to  interfere  with  the  daily 
work  of  the  poor  beasts.  This  is  comprehensible; 
but  he  will  not,  upon  his  own  initiative,  even  endeav- 
our to  bridge  the  sore  by  the  tricky  placing  of  a pad. 
However  bad  the  gathering  may  be,  on  goes  the  load, 
the  agony  of  the  poor  pony  manifesting  itself  in  a 
flourish  of  kicks,  bites,  and  squeals. 

In  demonstration  of  this  extreme  callousness  I 
may  mention  this  incident.  Once,  outside  Won- 
san, I saw  a Korean  seat  himself  upon  the  side  of 
a stone,  and  leisurely  proceed  to  rain  blows  upon 
the  head  of  a dog  which  he  was  holding,  until  the 
poor  thing  collapsed  insensible.  He  then  beat  it 

126 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 

about  the  ribs,  and  put  the  body  on  the  embers  of 
a fire.  We  were  several  hundred  yards  off  when  this 
attracted  my  notice;  but  I chased  the  brute  across 
two  paddy  stretches,  until  the  heavy  going  compelled 
me  to  abandon  it.  At  a later  time  I noticed  that 
the  grooms  were  most  careful  to  dress  the  backs  of 
the  horses  at  our  different  halts,  and  also  to  endeav- 
our to  prevent  the  pack  saddles  from  rubbing  the 
wounds,  prompted,  I have  no  doubt,  to  this  most 
desirable  kindliness  by  the  lesson  which  they  had 
read  between  the  lines  upon  the  occasion  of  the  dog 
incident. 

The  character  of  the  native  followers  who  accom- 
pany these  journeys  is  a matter  of  great  importance 
to  the  future  welfare  of  the  traveller.  The  propri- 
etor of  the  Station  Hotel,  Seoul,  secured  me  an  excel- 
lent boy.  Shortly  after  entering  my  service,  an 
American  missionary,  who  had  been  hankering  after 
the  lad  for  some  time  before  he  was  brought  to  me, 
suborned  him.  He  deserted  me  upon  the  eve  of 
my  second  expedition.  This  trick  is  seldom  per- 
petrated east  of  Suez  between  Europeans  with  native 
servants;  it  is  one  of  the  few  unwritten  laws  of  the 
East  and  observed  everywhere.  I reported  the 
matter  to  the  American  Minister,  Dr.  Allen,  but 
the  missionary  kept  the  boy.  Servants,  grooms,  and 
a coolie  of  a sort,  are  all  necessary  upon  these  expe- 
ditions; one  groom  to  each  horse  is  a wise  allowance. 
Koreans  like  to  send  three  horses  to  two  men;  how- 
ever, my  division  is  the  better.  Europeans  require  a 
boy-servant,  who  will  look  after  the  personal  effects 

127 


KOREA 


of  his  master,  and  wait  at  table.  An  interpreter, 
who  can  speak  Chinese,  and  some  European  language, 
either  German,  French,  or  English,  is  invaluable. 
It  is  safer  in  each  case  to  take  men  who  are  not  con- 
verts. A coolie  is  useful  and  gives  a little  variety 
to  the  beasts  of  burden ; he  carries  the  camera,  water- 
bottles,  and  small  impedimenta  of  the  hour.  A 
chef  is  not  really  necessary  — my  interpreter  vol- 
untarily served  as  cook.  The  interpreter  in  any 
journey  inland  should  be  mounted;  it  saves  consid- 
erable friction  if  the  personal  servants  be  allowed 
to  ride  on  the  baggage  ponies.  Interpreters  receive 
from  thirty  to  forty  dollars  a month;  personal  ser- 
vants from  eight  to  twenty  dollars  a month;  coolies 
from  eight  to  ten  dollars  a month.  The  hire  for 
the  horses,  with  whom  the  grooms  are  included,  is 
a dollar  a day,  half  the  amount  paid  down  in  advance 
upon  the  day  of  starting.  All  calculations  are  made 
in  Korean  currency.  The  entire  staff,  except  the 
horses  and  grooms,  is  fed  by  the  traveller.  The 
interpreter  takes  charge  of  the  accounts.  He  will,  if 
ordered,  take  down  the  Chinese  and  Korean  names 
of  the  villages,  streams,  lakes,  valleys,  plains,  moun- 
tains, and  roads  which  are  passed.  This  is  useful; 
the  map  of  Korea  is  most  hopelessly  out  of  date,  and 
by  forwarding  these  names  to  the  Geographical 
Society  some  little  good  is  accomplished.  The  inter- 
preter will  pay  the  coolies,  grooms,  and  other  ser- 
vants in  debased  currency,  and  charge  the  account 
in  Mexican  dollars,  making  a profit  of  seventy-five 
per  cent.;  he  is  greedy  and  tenacious  to  the  inter- 

128 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 


ests  of  his  pocket,  and  he  will  suggest  that  he  requires 
a servant.  For  this  remark  he  should  be  flogged. 
He  will  muddle  his  accounts  whenever  he  can;  he 
will  lose  receipts  if  he  can  And  no  other  way  of  squeez- 
ing. He  is  apparently  an  innocent,  transparently 
honest,  and  devoted  to  the  principles  of  sobriety 
and  virtue  — unless  there  is  an  opportunity  to  go 
the  usual  path.  Under  every  condition  he  should 
be  watched. 

The  Korean  does  not  approach  the  Chinaman  as 
a body-servant;  he  has  neither  the  initiative  nor  the 
capacity  for  the  work,  while  he  combines  intemper- 
ance, immorality,  and  laziness  in  varying  degrees. 
The  master  usually  ends  by  waiting  upon  his  man. 
There  is,  however,  an  antidote  to  this  state  of  things. 
If  sufficient  point  be  put  into  the  argument,  and  the 
demonstration  be  further  enforced  by  an  occasional 
kick,  as  circumstances  may  require,  it  is  possible 
to  convert  a first-class,  sun-loving  wastrel  into  a 
willing,  if  unintelligent,  servant.  Under  any  condi- 
tions, his  dishonesty  will  be  incorrigible. 

It  is  never  necessary  to  take  any  large  stock  of 
provisions  when  travelling  in  Korea.  Eggs,  fowl, 
fresh  fish,  fruit,  matches,  tobacco,  vegetables,  and 
crushed  rice  flour  can  be  procured  at  any  village 
in  large  quantities.  The  inhabitants  will  perhaps 
declare  that  there  are  no  such  things  in  the  village; 
that  they  are  miserably  poor.  The  village  usually 
bears  the  stamp  of  its  condition  pretty  plainly,  and 
I found  that  where  this  occurred  the  most  effectual 
remedy  was  to  call  up  the  oldest  man  visible,  to 

129 


KOREA 


offer  him  a cigarette,  to  calm  him  down,  and  then  to 
give  the  interpreter  some  money  and  to  send  ofiF  the 
pair  of  them.  Once  this  system  failed  in  a flea- 
infested  hole  on  the  west  coast,  where  the  village  inn 
had  no  stables,  and  I really  thought  there  were  no 
fowls;  of  a sudden,  as  though  satirising  the  expres- 
sion of  regret  of  several  villagers,  two  fowls  fluttered 
over  a wall  into  the  road.  The  meeting  broke  up 
in  confusion.  The  grooms,  the  servants,  and  the 
interpreter  at  once  tackled  the  mob,  laying  about 
them  with  their  whips;  little  damage  was  done, 
but  considerable  commotion  ensued,  and  stables, 
fowls,  and  eggs  were  at  once  forthcoming  and  as 
promptly  paid  for.  In  regard  to  payments  made  to 
the  villagers,  it  is  as  well  to  make  certain  that  the 
grooms  pay  for  the  horses’  accommodation;  if  they 
can  avoid  it  they  will  do  so,  and  a memory  of  this 
lingering  in  the  mind  of  the  inn-keeper  makes  him 
shut  his  door  when  the  next  foreigner  is  passing. 
But,  in  a general  way,  if  everything  is  paid  for, 
anything  is  procurable  — even  crockery  and  char- 
coal stoves,  at  a pinch,  when  the  diflBculties  of  the 
precipitous  track  have  played  unusual  havoc  in  the 
china  basket. 

In  the  routine  of  the  march,  it  is  pleasant  to  camp 
beyond  the  village  for  the  noonday  halt;  near  the 
river,  if  the  weather  permits  bathing.  The  food 
can  be  prepared  in  the  sunlight  under  some  trees. 
This  picnic  halt  gives  an  agreeable  change  from  the 
native  inn,  over  which  the  missionaries  wail  perpet- 
ually; it  is,  indeed,  always  to  be  avoided.  I was 

130 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 

several  times  in  Korean  inns,  driven  in  by  some 
sudden  and  temporary  downpour,  which  cut  off  my 
retreat.  The  evening  camp  made  me  independent 
of  them  in  general;  every  evening  the  interpreter 
found  the  cleanest-looking  private  house  and  bar- 
gained with  its  proprietor  to  let  two  rooms  for  the 
time  of  my  visit.  The  arrangement  was  never 
refused,  nor  was  I ever  subjected  to  rudeness  or  to 
any  insult  upon  these  occasions.  The  family  would 
freely  help  my  servants,  and  when  the  grooms  had 
removed  themselves  and  their  horses  to  the  inn 
stables,  no  one  was  disturbed.  The  boy  prepared 
breakfast  in  the  morning.  The  space  allotted  to 
us  was  always  ample  for  my  camp-bed,  kit,  and 
mosquito  curtains.  It  opened,  as  a rule,  upon  the 
courtyard,  around  which  the  house  is  built.  There 
was  plenty  of  air,  as  one  side  was  open;  the  flooring 
was  of  thick  timbers,  raised  from  the  ground.  If 
the  weather  proved  inclement  the  place  afforded 
warmth  and  shelter.  Moreover,  this  system  has 
much  to  commend  it  on  the  score  of  cleanliness; 
the  price  paid  by  me,  half  a dollar,  for  the  rooms  was 
of  course  usually  double  the  price  which  had  been 
arranged.  Occasionally  while  travelling,  when  these 
private  houses  were  unprocurable,  other  makeshifts 
had  to  be  adopted,  an  open  encampment  or  the 
official  quarters  at  the  Yamen.  This  latter  place 
was  inconvenient,  and  we  always  accepted  anything 
of  a private  nature  rather  than  venture  into  the 
Yamen  or  the  inn.  jVIany  nights  were  passed  upon 
the  verandahs  of  these  houses,  with  a private  room 

131 


KOREA 


leading  from  it  at  the  back,  in  case  it  became  neces- 
sary. Our  beds  were  pitched  as  much  in  the  open 
as  possible,  the  silent  beauty  of  the  night  hours 
quite  justifying  the  measure.  Many  nights  I 
undressed  upon  the  edge  of  the  street,  my  camp-bed 
pitched  beneath  a verandah,  a peaceful  and  inoffen- 
sive crowd  of  Koreans  smoking  and  watching  me 
a few  feet  off.  I would  get  into  my  sleeping-suit, 
roll  into  my  camp-bed,  and  close  the  mosquito  cur- 
tains, upon  which  the  crowd  would  quietly  disperse. 
As  publicity  was  unavoidable,  and  it  was  useless 
to  object,  it  was  easier  to  accept  the  situation  than 
to  struggle  with  the  curiosity  of  the  spectators. 

It  is  always  well  to  dispense  with  everything  which 
can  be  discarded.  A camp-bed  well  off  the  ground, 
and  more  strongly  made  than  those  of  the  usual 
American  pattern,  is  essential;  a field-kit  canvas 
valise,  the  Wolseley  pattern,  containing  a pocket  at 
either  end,  with  a cork  mattress,  is  also  indispensable. 
It  will  carry  all  personal  effects.  Flannel  shirts, 
towels,  socks,  and  the  like,  including  a book  or 
two,  writing  materials,  mackintosh  sheets,  mosquito 
curtains,  and  insect-powder  are  all  which  need  to 
be  included.  Fresh  mint  is  useful  against  fleas  if 
thrown  about  near  the  sleeping  things  in  little  heaps. 
It  is  an  invaluable  remedy  and  usually  effective, 
though,  by  the  way,  I found  the  fleas  and  bugs  in 
the  houses  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia  infinitely 
less  amenable  to  such  treatment  than  any  I came 
across  in  Korea  during  my  stay  there.  A camera, 
a colonial  saddle,  Zeiss  glasses,  a shot-gun,  a sporting- 

132 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 

rifle,  a revolver,  a hunting-knife,  and  a large  vulcan- 
ite water-bottle  are  necessary  A supply  of  sparklets 
is  to  be  recommended;  these  articles,  with  a coil 
of  rope,  balls  of  string,  jam,  cocoa,  tea,  sugar, 
alcohol,  potted  meats,  tinned  fruits,  and  biscuits, 
enamelled  ware  eating  and  cooking  things,  with  a 
few  toilet  accessories,  completed  my  materials.  It 
is  good  policy  to  take  a small  hamper  of  wines  and 
luxuries,  in  case  the  opportunity  occurs  of  extending 
hospitality  to  an  oflBcial  or  some  other  travelling 
European.  They  are  very  serviceable  among  the  oflS- 
cials.  Native  tobacco  is  light,  mild,  and  easily  smok- 
able.  I carried  a pouch  of  it  invariably.  Canvas 
valises  of  the  service  type  are  better  than  any 
kind  of  a box.  With  this  arrangement  there  are 
no  corners  or  sharp  edges  to  hurt  the  horses,  and 
as  a load,  too,  they  do  not  make  such  hard,  unyield- 
ing objects  against  the  side  of  a horse  as  any 
leather,  tin,  or  wooden  contrivance.  My  bed  and 
field-kit  just  balanced  upon  one  pony;  my  provisions 
and  servants’  baggage  fitted  another.  There  was 
one  spare  pony.  The  interpreter  and  myself  rode; 
the  servants  were  mounted  upon  the  baggage  ani- 
mals, the  coolie  walked. 

At  one  time,  when  I was  travelling  with  a German 
friend,  our  retinue  was  exceedingly  numerous;  we 
each  had  our  personal  establishment  and  a com- 
bined staff  for  the  expedition.  This,  however,  is  not 
quite  the  way  to  rough  it.  It  was,  moreover,  com- 
paratively expensive  and  a bother,  inasmuch  that 
so  large  a cavalcade  required  no  little  managing. 

133 


KOREA 


There  was,  however,  something  luxurious  and  enjoy- 
able in  that  procession  across  Korea,  although  it 
is  not  the  plan  to  be  adopted  in  general. 

There  was  little  further  to  be  accomplished  by 
me  in  Korea.  My  journey  overland  had  taken  me 
from  Fusan  to  Seoul  and  again  from  Seoul  to  Won- 
san, my  examination  of  the  inland  and  coast  centres 
of  mining  and  industry  was  concluded:  the  beauties 
of  the  Diamond  Mountains,  with  their  Buddhist 
monasteries,  had  been  studied.  At  the  end  of  these 
labours,  I was  weary  and  ill  at  ease;  moreover,  the 
time  was  approaching  when  my  long  journey  over- 
land from  Seoul,  the  ancient  capital  of  Korea,  to 
Vladivostock,  the  seat  of  Russian  authority  upon 
the  Pacific  coast,  would  have  to  be  begun.  The  heat 
in  Seoul  had  been  most  oppressive,  when  one  day 
Mr.  Gubbins,  the  British  Minister,  suggested  a 
short  spell  of  rest  and  recuperation  upon  an  island  a 
few  miles  up  the  Han  River.  Before  nightfall, 
my  staff  and  I were  floating,  with  the  turn  of  the 
tide,  up  the  estuary  of  the  river.  Sea  breezes  blew 
over  the  mighty  expanse  of  the  smoothly  gliding 
waters,  and  the  burden  of  weariness  which  had  been 
depressing  me,  lightened  under  the  influence  of  these 
gusty  winds  and  the  freshening  air  from  the  harbour. 
The  change  from  the  hot  and  stuffy  surroundings  of 
the  capital,  where  the  crowds  had  ceased  to  be  attract- 
ive and  domestic  bothers,  arising  from  the  prepara- 
tion for  my  Vladivostock  journey,  had  begun  to 
jar  upon  the  nerves,  was  most  entrancing.  W’^hen 
the  moon  burst  out  from  behind  a blackened  can- 

134 


TRAVELLING  IN  KOREA 


opy  of  cloud,  as  we  sailed  easily  against  the  rapid 
current  of  the  river,  the  rugged  outline  of  the  cliffs 
across  the  waters  proved  the  reality  of  the  trans- 
formation. During  the  small  hours  of  the  night  I 
lay  awake,  playing  with  the  bubbles  and  froth  of 
the  water  in  sweet  contentment.  I resolved  to 
dally  for  a few  days  upon  the  small  islands  in  the 
stream,  halting  in  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  moving 
forward  at  night  or  in  the  twilight,  when  sea-birds 
could  be  killed  for  the  pot  and  fish  dragged  from 
their  cool  depths  for  the  breakfast  dish.  How 
delightful  were  the  plunges  into  that  swift  current; 
and  how  often  they  were  taken  in  the  cool  shade 
of  some  island  backwater!  Care  and  anxiety 
dropped  away  in  those  days  of  idle  frolic,  giving  the 
mind,  worn  by  the  strain  of  many  months  of  travel 
and  the  hardship  of  two  campaigns,  opportunity 
to  recover  its  vigour.  Then  came  some  pleasant 
weeks  in  the  island  monastery,  where,  from  a Bud- 
dhist haunt,  perched  high  upon  a lofty  peak  on 
Kang-wha,  mile  upon  mile  of  smiling  scenery  lay 
open  to  inspection  from  my  chamber  window. 

The  salt  water  estuary  of  the  Han  is  tempestu- 
ous and  deep,  given  over  to  much  shipping  and  small 
craft.  The  river  itself  does  not  begin  for  twenty 
miles  above  the  tide-water  mouth,  the  intervening 
stretch  of  water  belonging  more  correctly  to  the  sea. 
Above  Chemulpo,  where  the  full  force  of  the  Han 
current  is  hardly  felt,  the  velocity  of  the  stream  is 
quite  five  knots  an  hour.  Where  the  breadth  of 
the  river  narrows  the  rapidity  of  the  flow  increases. 

135 


KOREA 


At  a point,  where  the  river  makes  a sudden  sweep 
round  some  overhanging  bluffs,  which  confront  each 
other  from  opposite  banks,  the  heavy  volume  of 
water  thus  tumbling  down  becomes  a swirling,  bois- 
terous mill-race,  as  it  twists  and  foams  through  its 
tortuous  channels  into  another  tide-swollen  reach. 
The  place  of  meeting  between  the  sea  and  the  river 
current  shows  itself  in  a line  of  choppy  water,  neither 
rough  nor  smooth.  The  w'ater  is  always  bubbling 
and  always  breaking  at  this  point,  in  a manner 
poetically  suggestive  of  the  spirits  of  the  restless 
deep.  The  Han  River  gives  access  to  Seoul.  In 
the  days  before  the  railway,  the  choice  of  route  to 
the  capital  lay  between  spending  a night  aground 
upon  one  of  the  many  shifting  sand-banks  in  the 
river  or  the  risks  of  a belated  journey  overland,  with 
pack  ponies  and  the  delights  of  a sand-bath  in  the 
Little  Sahara.  There  were  many  who  found  the 
“all  land”  way  preferable  to  the  “land  and  w'ater 
system,”  to  which  many  groundings  and  much 
wading  reduced  the  experiment  of  travelling  by 
junk  or  steam-launch  in  those  days.  Now,  how^ever, 
the  iron  horse  rules  the  road. 


136 


CHAPTER  XIV 

RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 

KANG-WHA,  the  island  to  which  I was  sail- 
ing in  these  easy  stages,  lies  in  the  north- 
east quarter  of  the  gulf,  formed  by  the 
right  angle  which  the  coast  makes  before  taking 
that  northerly  sweep  which  carries  it,  with  a curve, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Yalu  River.  On  the  south  and 
south-west,  Kang-wha  is  exposed  to  the  open  sea; 
on  the  north,  the  island  is  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  Han  estuary;  and  on  the  east  a narrow 
strait,  scarce  two  hundred  yards  wide,  through  which 
boats,  journeying  from  Chemulpo  to  Seoul,  must 
travel,  severs  the  island  from  the  mainland. 

The  geographical  features  of  the  island  include 
four  clearly  defined  ranges  of  mountains,  with  peaks 
attaining  an  altitude  of  some  two  thousand  feet. 
Broad  and  fertile  valleys,  running  from  east  to  west, 
separate  these  ranges,  the  agricultural  industry  of 
the  population  being  conducted  in  their  open  spaces. 
The  villages  and  farmsteads,  in  which  the  farming 
population  dwell,  are  folded  away  in  little  hollows 
along  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  securing  shelter  and 
protection  from  the  severity  of  the  winter.  Many 
hundred  acres  of  the  flats,  which  form  the  approaches 
to  these  valleys  from  the  coast,  have  been  reclaimed 

137 


KOREA 


from  the  sea  during  the  last  two  centuries,  the  erec- 
tion of  sea  dykes  of  considerable  length  and  immense 
strength  having  proceeded  apace.  But  for  these 
heavy  earthworks,  what  is  now  a flourishing  agri- 
cultural area  would  be  nothing  but  a sea  of  mud 
washed  by  every  spring  tide.  The  continuous 
encroachment  of  the  sea  threatened  at  one  time  the 
extinction  of  all  the  low-lying  level  land. 

Kang-wha,  with  its  curious  monasteries  and  high 
protecting  battlements,  now  reduced  to  picturesque 
decay,  played  a prominent  part  in  the  early  history 
of  Korea.  It  has  repelled  invasion,  and  afforded 
sanctuary  to  the  Royal  Family  and  the  Government 
in  days  of  trouble;  the  boldness  of  its  position  has 
made  it  the  first  outpost  to  be  attacked  and  the  most 
important  to  be  defended.  Twice  in  the  thirteenth 
century  the  capital  was  removed  to  Kang-wha  under 
stress  of  foreign  invasion.  With  the  exception 
of  the  terrible  Japanese  invasion  under  Hideyoshi 
in  1592,  and  the  Chino- Japanese  War  in  1894-95, 
Kang-wha  has  felt  the  full  force  of  nearly  every 
foreign  expedition  which  has  disturbed  the  peace 
of  the  country  during  the  past  eight  centuries, 
notably  those  of  the  Mongols  in  the  thirteenth,  of  the 
Manchus  in  the  seventeenth  centuries,  of  the  French 
in  1866,  and  of  the  Americans  in  1871.  Further- 
more, Kang-wha  was  the  scene  of  the  affair  between 
Koreans  and  Japanese  which  led  to  the  conclusion 
of  the  first  treaty  between  Korea  and  Japan  in  1876. 
The  actual  signing  of  that  instrument,  the  first  of 
the  series  which  has  thrown  open  Korea  to  the  world, 

138 


RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 


took  place  in  Kang-wha  city.  The  predecessor  of 
the  present  Emperor  of  Korea  was  born  in  Kang-wha 
in  1831,  living  in  retirement  in  the  capital  city 
until  he  was  called  to  the  throne  in  1849.  Upon 
occasion,  Kang-wha  has  been  deemed  a suitable 
place  of  exile  for  dethroned  monarchs,  inconvenient 
scions  of  Royalty,  and  disgraced  Ministers. 

At  two  points  in  the  narrow  strait  upon  the  east 
are  ferries  to  carry  passengers  to  the  mainland. 
Kang-song,  where  the  stream  makes  an  abrupt  turn 
between  low  cliffs,  is  the  scene  of  the  American 
expedition  of  1871;  near  the  southern  entrance  of 
the  strait,  and  close  to  the  ferry,  are  the  forts  which 
repelled  the  American  storming-party.  The  famous 
rapids  and  whirlpool  of  Sondol-mok,  whose  evil 
reputation  is  the  terror  of  the  coast,  are  close  by. 
There  are  numerous  forts  dotted  round  the  coast 
of  the  island,  recalling  the  Martello  towers  of  Great 
Britain.  They  were  not  all  erected  at  one  time; 
the  majority  of  them  date  only  from  the  close  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  having  been  raised  in  the  early 
years  of  Suk-chong.  The  rampart  upon  the  eastern 
shore,  which  frowns  down  upon  the  straits  and  river 
below,  was  erected  in  1253.  Ko-chong,  of  the  Ko- 
ryo  dynasty,  fled  before  the  Mongol  invasion  of 
that  date,  removing  his  Court  and  capital  from 
Song-do  to  Kang-wha.  Kak-kot-chi,  where  there 
is  a second  ferry,  is  a few  miles  beyond  Kang-song. 
At  the  point  where  the  ferry  plies,  the  hill  of  Mun-su 
rises  twelve  hundred  feet  high  from  the  water’s 
edge.  From  a junk  a short  distance  from  the  shore 

139 


KOREA 


it  appears  to  block  the  straits,  so  closely  do  the  cliffs 
of  Kang-wha  gather  to  the  mainland.  This  little 
place  became  the  headquarters  of  the  French  expe- 
ditionary force  in  1866. 

The  capital  of  the  island,  Kang-wha  city,  is  a 
battlemented  citadel,  with  walls  fifteen  li  in  circum- 
ference, and  four  pavilioned  city  gates.  It  is  a 
garrison  town,  beautiful  in  its  combination  of  green 
vistas  and  ancient,  crumbling  walls.  The  Chino- 
Japanese  War,  so  fatal  to  many  of  the  old  institu- 
tions of  Korea,  diminished  the  ancient  glory  of 
Kang-wha.  For  two  hundred  and  sixty  years  prior 
to  this  campaign,  Kang-wha  ranked  with  Song-do, 
Kang-chyu,  Syu-won,  and  Chyon-chybn  as  one  of 
the  0-to,  or  Five  Citadels,  upon  which  the  safety 
of  the  Empire  depended.  It  controlled  a garrison 
of  ten  thousand  troops;  the  various  officials  num- 
bered nearly  one  thousand.  The  change  in  the  des- 
tiny of  the  kingdom  brought  a turn  in  the  fortunes 
of  the  island,  and  it  is  now  administered  by  an  official 
of  little  importance.  It  is  still,  however,  the  seat  of 
government  for  a widely  scattered  region,  and  the 
centre  of  trade  and  industry  for  some  thirty  thou- 
sand people.  Agriculture  is  the  staple  industry; 
stone-quarrying  and  mat-making  are  other  means 
by  which  the  population  exists.  At  the  water-side 
there  are  salt-pans;  a certain  amount  of  fishing, 
a little  pottery-making,  smelting,  the  weaving  of 
coarse  linen,  to  which  work  the  wives  of  the  farmers 
devote  themselves,  complete  the  occupation  of  the 
inhabitants.  One  pursuit,  horse-breeding,  for  which 

140 


RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 


Kang-wha  was  once  famous,  is  now  completely 
abandoned. 

There  are  nine  monasteries  under  the  government 
of  the  island.  Seven  are  situated  upon  the  island; 
the  chief  of  these  is  the  fortified  monastery  of  Chung- 
deung,  the  Temple  of  Histories,  the  sometime  pil- 
lar of  defence  of  the  Kingdom,  thirty  li  south  of 
Kang-wha,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  reverse  suf- 
fered by  the  French  troops  in  1866.  Mun-su-sa, 
standing  upon  the  mainland  opposite,  is  included 
in  this  little  colony  of  Buddhistic  retreats,  as  is 
another,  upon  the  island  of  Ma-eum-to,  called  Po- 
mun-sa,  famous  for  the  wildness  of  its  scenery  and 
for  a natural  rock  temple  in  the  side  of  the  hill 
upon  which  it  stands.  The  monks  of  Chung- 
deung-sa  enjoyed  military  rank  until  quite  recently. 
They  were  regarded  as  soldiers  in  times  of  national 
distress;  they  received  Government  allowances,  food, 
and  arms,  in  order  to  maintain  them  in  a state  of 
eflSciency.  Buddhism  has  lost  much  of  its  hold 
upon  the  islanders,  although  it  existed  before  1266. 
There  is  a branch  of  the  English  Mission  (Seoul)  in 
Kang-wha,  under  the  administration  of  the  Rev. 
Mark  Napier  Trollope,  whose  notes  upon  this  island 
were  presented  in  a paper  which  their  author  read 
before  the  local  branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
during  my  stay  in  Korea.  They  materially  assisted 
me  to  collect  the  interesting  data  from  which  these 
few  paragraphs  have  been  compiled. 

I stayed  five  weeks  in  Kang-wha  monastery. 
Having  gone  there  for  a week  at  the  outside,  I found 

141 


KOREA 


the  quiet  and  solitude  of  the  spot  such  a sanctuary 
from  trouble,  and  such  a calm  to  the  nerves, 
that  I was  loath  to  abandon  it.  After  a few  days  in 
the  cramped  confinement  of  the  native  junk  which 
had  conveyed  me  from  Chemulpo,  delaying  much 
en  route,  it  was  pleasant  to  stretch  my  limbs  again 
upon  the  shore.  Landing  one  morning  at  daybreak, 
I fell  upon  the  unsuspecting  guardian  of  the  English 
Mission,  Father  Trollope,  and  moved  ofiF  at  a later 
hour  in  the  day  across  country  to  the  monastery. 
The  monks  were  not  at  all  disturbed  by  my  intru- 
sion. Although  strangers  are  not  such  frequent 
visitors  to  this  monastery  as  to  those  in  the  Dia- 
mond Mountains,  their  presence  excites  no  comment, 
and  they  are  allowed  to  go  their  way  with  that 
kindly  indifference  to  their  existence  which  is,  under 
the  circumstances,  the  height  of  courtesy.  The 
Chief  Abbot  was  informed  of  my  arrival,  and, 
after  a little  explanation,  ordered  a very  airj"  build- 
ing to  be  prepared  for  my  reception.  It  was  well 
raised  from  the  ground,  and,  situated  just  below  the 
main  courtyard,  afforded  a magnificent  view  of 
the  entire  domain.  In  the  distance  I could  see  the 
farm-lands  of  the  island  and  the  sparkle  of  the  sun- 
light upon  the  water;  more  within  the  picture,  and 
quite  near  to  my  new  home,  were  two  wells,  a run- 
ning stream,  and  a stretch  of  mountain  slopes,  cool, 
fragrant,  and  overgrown  with  scrub  and  bush. 
Temples  revealed  themselves  in  a sea  of  foliage, 
through  which  the  drifting  breezes  played  soft  music. 
At  one  end  of  this  Hall  of  Entertainment  were  placed 

142 


RESTING  IN  KANG- W HA 

the  cooking  and  eating  paraphernalia,  in  the  middle 
my  camp-bed,  and,  overlooking  the  landscape,  an 
improvised  writing  table  with  my  books  and  papers. 
There  was  no  element  of  unrest  in  the  setting  of 
my  little  camp.  Every  morning  the  Chief  Abbot 
welcomed  me  to  the  glories  of  another  day;  in  the 
evening  we,  through  the  medium  of  my  interpreter, 
talked  together  upon  an  amazing  variety  of  sub- 
jects — Buddha  and  Christ,  this  world  and  the  next, 
Paris,  London,  America.  Duties  in  the  monastery 
would  prevent  these  new  friends  from  coming  on 
certain  nights;  but  they  always  forewarned  me  of 
their  absence,  never  disturbing  me  at  my  work, 
never  taking  me  by  surprise.  The  sense  of  consid- 
eration and  courtesy  which  their  kindly  hospital- 
ity displayed  was  manifested  in  countless  ways. 
The  small  return  which  it  was  possible  to  make  quite 
shamed  me  before  them.  Frequently,  at  midnight, 
when  my  lights  were  burning,  the  Abbot  would 
walk  across  from  his  own  apartments  and  force  me 
to  bed  with  many  smiles  and  much  gentle  pressure, 
covering  my  manuscript  with  his  hands  and  nodding 
towards  my  camp-bed.  There  was  no  screen  to 
the  front  of  my  building,  so  it  was  always  possible 
for  them  to  observe  the  stranger  within  their  gates. 
This  inspection  was  most  quietly  carried  on;  indeed, 
if  I turned  to  the  open  courtyard,  those  who, 
perhaps,  had  been  noting  the  structure  of  my 
camp-bed,  or  the  contents  of  my  valise,  hanging 
to  air  upon  a stout  rope,  flitted  away  like  ghosts. 
I was  left,  as  I wished,  in  peaceful  contempla- 

143 


KOREA 

tion  of  my  work  and  the  splendour  of  the  scenery 
around  me. 

Catering  arrangements  were  quite  simple  during 
my  stay  in  this  monastery.  Rice  and  eggs  and  fowls 
were  procurable  from  the  villages  beyond  the  walls 
of  the  temple,  and  rice-flour  or  vegetables  could  be 
procured  from  the  butterman  of  the  monastery. 
It  was  my  plan  to  take  breakfast  about  ten  o’clock  in 
the  morning,  and  to  dine  about  six  o’clock  in  the 
evening.  Between  these  hours  was  my  time  for 
writing,  and  I was  always  fully  occupied.  Before 
breakfast  I walked  abroad  or  prepared  my  notes 
of  the  work  for  the  day;  after  dinner  I received  my 
callers,  arranging  anything  of  interest  in  my  notes 
when  they  were  gone.  Usually  I witnessed  the 
midnight  gathering  of  the  monks,  listening,  with 
pleasure,  to  the  booming  of  the  great  bell  of  the 
monastery  and  the  accompanying  peals  of  smaller 
bells  of  less  melodious  volume  and  much  shriller  tone. 
The  vibration  in  the  air,  as  these  wonderful  noises 
broke  upon  it,  filled  the  high  woods  with  melody 
and  the  deep  valleys  with  haunted  strains  as  of 
spirit-music.  After  the  midnight  mass,  when  the 
echoes  had  died  away,  the  delight  of  the  moment 
was  supreme.  In  utter  weariness  and  most  abso- 
lute contentment  I stretched  myself  to  slumber 
beneath  the  protecting  draperies  of  the  mosquito 
curtains,  within  the  vaulted  spaciousness  of  my  Hall 
of  Entertainment. 

Visitors  to  Chung-deung-sa  were  frequent  during 
my  stay,  some  attracted  by  the  reported  presence 

144 


RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 

of  a foreigner,  others  by  their  very  genuine  wish  to 
sacrifice  to  the  All-Blessed-One.  Two  Korean  ladies 
of  position  arrived  in  the  course  of  one  morning  to 
plead  for  the  intercession  of  Buddha  in  their  burden 
of  domestic  misery  and  unhappiness.  Presenting  the 
Korean  equivalent  for  ten  shillings  to  the  funds 
of  the  monastery,  they  arranged  with  the  Abbot  for 
the  celebration  of  a nocturnal  mass  in  the  Temple 
of  the  Great  Heroes.  During  the  afternoon  the 
priests  prepared  the  temple  in  which  the  celebration 
was  to  be  held;  elaborate  screens  of  Korean  pictorial 
design  were  carried  into  the  temple  from  the  cells 
of  the  Chief  Abbot;  large  quantities  of  the  finest 
rice  were  boiled.  High,  conical  piles  of  sweetmeats 
and  sacrificial  cakes  were  placed  in  large  copper 
dishes  before  the  main  altar,  where  the  three  figures 
of  Buddha  sat  in  their  usual  attitude  of  divine  medi- 
tation. In  front  of  each  figure  stood  a carved, 
gilded  tablet,  twelve  inches  high,  exactly  opposite 
to  which  the  food  was  placed,  with  bowls  of  burning 
incense  at  intervals  between  the  dishes.  Lighted 
candles,  in  long  sticks,  were  placed  at  either  end  of 
the  altar;  above  it,  in  the  centre,  serving  as  a lamp 
and  hanging  from  a long  gilded  chain,  was  suspended 
a bowl  of  white  jade,  in  which  lay  the  smoking  end 
of  a lighted  wick.  Numerous  side  altars  were  sim- 
ilarly decorated.  The  furniture  of  the  temple  com- 
prised a big  drum,  a heavy,  cracked  bell,  cast  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  a pair  of  cymbals.  There 
were  five  monks;  the  two  women  sat,  mute,  upon 
the  left  of  the  Abbot.  The  four  priests  arranged 

145 


KOREA 


themselves  upon  the  right  — one  to  the  bell,  one 
to  the  drum,  and  two  to  the  pair  of  cymbals,  in  the 
playing  of  which  they  took  turns.  Upon  each  side  of 
the  temple,  recessed  right  and  left  of  the  main  altar, 
were  mural  representations  of  the  Ten  Judges. 
Save  for  the  altar  illuminations,  the  effect  of  which 
was  to  render  the  interior  even  gloomier  and  more 
eerie  than  usual,  the  building  was  in  darkness. 

The  service  began  with  the  customary  calling  for 
Buddha.  The  Abbot  tapped  upon  a bamboo  cane; 
every  one  leant  forward,  their  faces  pressed  down, 
and  their  foreheads  resting  upon  the  floor.  The 
palms  of  their  hands  were  extended  beyond  their 
heads  in  an  attitude  of  reverence  and  humility. 
This  prostration  w^as  accompanied  by  the  intoning 
of  a Thibetan  chant,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a 
brass  gong,  struck  with  a horn  handle  by  the  Abbot 
himself.  Further  prostrations  followed  upon  the 
part  of  the  entire  assemblage,  the  women  joining 
in  this  part  of  the  service.  For  the  most  part  they 
squatted  silently  and  reverently  in  their  corner 
of  the  temple.  As  the  different  services  concluded 
the  Abbot  shifted  the  offerings  before  the  main 
altar  to  their  appointed  stations  before  the  smaller 
shrines,  when  the  prayers  proceeded  afresh.  Pro- 
tracted overtures  w^ere  made  to  the  pictures  of  the 
Ten  Judges,  before  w^hich  the  service  apparently 
became  fully  choral.  One  priest  danced  amazing 
grotesque  steps,  strangely  reminiscent  of  a Kaffir  and 
war-dance,  the  sole  of  one  foot  striking  the  floor 
to  the  accompaniment  of  a clash  of  cymbals  as  the 

146 


RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 


other  leapt  into  the  air.  Another  priest  played 
upon  the  cracked  bell,  and  a third  kept  up  a dull, 
monotonous  thumping  on  the  drum.  The  sole  idea 
of  the  priests,  as  conveyed  to  my  mind  by  their 
celebration,  seemed  to  be  the  breaking  up  of  the 
solemn  silence  of  the  night  by  the  most  amazing 
medley  of  noises.  At  intervals,  in  the  course  of  the 
unmusical  colloquy  between  the  drums,  the  cymbals, 
and  the  big  bell,  the  monks  chanted  their  dirges, 
which  were,  in  turn,  punctuated  by  the  dislocated 
tapping  of  the  Abbot’s  brass  bell  and  wooden 
knocker. 

It  was  deafening,  the  most  penetrating  discord  of 
which  I have  ever  been  the  unfortunate  auditor. 
With  the  conclusion  of  the  exercises  upon  the  cym- 
bals, which  were  beaten  together  in  a wide,  circular 
sweep  of  the  arms,  then  tossed  aloft,  caught,  and 
clanged  together  after  the  fashion  of  the  South 
African  native  with  his  spear  and  shield,  the  perform- 
ing priest  returned  to  the  companion  who  relieved 
him.  His  more  immediate  activities  over,  he  stood 
aside  laughing  and  talking  with  his  colleagues  in 
a voice  which  quite  drowned  the  chants  in  which  his 
companions  were  engaged.  Then,  panting  with  his 
late  exertions,  he  proceeded  to  fan  himself  with  the 
most  perfect  unconcern,  finally  examining  the  hem 
of  his  jacket  for  lice;  his  search  repaying  him,  he 
returned  to  his  seat  upon  the  floor  and  lifted  up 
his  voice  wuth  the  others.  After  the  sacrifices  and 
prayers  had  been  offered  before  the  main  altar  and 
those  upon  the  right  and  left,  extra  tables  of  fruit, 

147 


KOREA 


apples,  dates,  nuts,  cakes,  and  incense,  together 
with  the  previous  dishes  of  rice,  cakes,  incense,  and 
bread,  were  spread  before  a small  shrine  placed  in 
front  of  the  screen.  Rice  was  piled  into  a bowl, 
and,  while  the  other  monks  were  laughing  and  chat- 
tering among  themselves  in  the  temple  itself  dur- 
ing the  progress  of  the  sacrifice,  the  two  women 
approached  the  shrine  and  made  obeisance  three 
times,  then  touching  each  dish  with  their  fingers, 
bowed  again  and  retired  to  their  corner.  At  the 
same  time  three  priests,  breaking  from  the  group 
that  were  talking  by  the  doors  of  the  building,  sat 
down  in  the  centre  of  the  temple  upon  their  praying- 
mats,  seven  or  eight  feet  from  the  shrine.  While 
one  chanted  Korean  prayers  from  a roll  of  paper, 
another  struck  and  rang  the  brass  bell  repeatedly, 
and  the  third  hammered  the  gong.  Throughout 
this  part  of  the  service  the  others  chatted  volubly, 
until  they,  too,  joined  in  a chorus  and  paean  of 
thanksgiving,  breaking  off  from  that  to  chant,  in 
low,  suppressed  tones,  a not  unimpressive  litany. 

Repetitions  of  the  services  I have  described  con- 
tinued all  night.  Sometimes  there  was  more  noise, 
sometimes  less,  occasionally  there  was  none,  the 
tired,  quavering  voices  of  the  sleepy  priests  tremu- 
lously chanting  the  requisite  number  of  litanies.  The 
women,  who  sat  with  wide-opened  eyes,  watched  with 
interest  and  were  satisfied.  The  priests  seemed 
bored.  Personally  I was  tired,  dazed,  and  stunned 
by  the  uproar.  During  the  progress  of  this  strange 
service,  I was  struck  by  the  utter  absence  of  that 

148 


RESTING  IN  KANG-WHA 


devotional  fervour  which  was  so  characteristic  of 
the  priests  in  the  principal  monasteries  of  the  Dia- 
mond Mountains. 

The  ceremony  presently  shifted  from  the  Temple 
of  the  Great  Heroes  to  the  spacious  courtyard  in 
front  of  it.  Here,  when  numerous  fires  had  been 
lighted,  the  Abbot  and  three  priests,  together  with 
the  two  Korean  women,  moved  in  procession. 
Their  march  was  accompanied  by  the  striking  of 
many  gongs  and  bells.  The  monks  offered  prayers 
round  heaps  of  pine  branches,  which  had  been  thrown 
together  and  lighted  at  the  different  spots.  Chants 
and  prayers  were  repeated,  and  the  same  clashing 
of  instruments  went  on  as  before.  It  was  not  until 
a heavy  rain  descended  that  the  worshippers  returned 
to  the  seclusion  of  the  temple.  I felt,  somehow, 
quite  grateful  to  that  shower  of  rain.  In  the  morning, 
my  interpreter  told  me  that  this  progress  in  the 
courtyard  formed  a part  of  services  which  accom- 
panied the  offering  of  special  prayers  for  rain.  It 
would  be  a curious  coincidence  if  this  were  so. 
Next  day,  at  the  hour  of  my  breakfast,  there  was 
some  desire  to  continue  the  celebration.  My  head 
was  still  aching  with  the  jarring  discord  of  the  bells, 
gongs,  and  cymbals  of  the  previous  entertainment, 
and  at  the  sight  of  the  preparations  my  appetite 
vanished.  Breakfast  became  impossible;  I relin- 
quished it  to  pray  for  peace.  Happily  this  bless- 
ing was  granted  me;  and  it  was  decided  to  hold 
no  further  service  — the  rain,  I presume,  having 
appeared  — and  to  devour  the  sacrifices.  All  that 

149 


KOREA 


day  the  monks  and  their  two  guests  ate  the  offerings. 
It  was  therefore  a day  of  undisturbed  quiet,  and  as 
my  prayer  also  had  been  granted,  each  was  satis- 
fied, and  we  were  a happy  family. 


150 


A SCAMPER  THROUGH  KOREA 


By  Major  Herbert  H.  Austin 


CHAPTER  XV 


THE  SORROWS  OF  A COVETED  KINGDOM 

From  the  remotest  times  Korea  has  been 
subjected  to  the  invasion  of  the  foreigner, 
the  most  terrible  of  those  earliest  recorded 
consisting  of  a series  of  incursions  by  the  Chinese, 
which  ultimately  resulted  about  a.d.  700  in  the 
greater  part  of  Korea  being  conquered,  and  submit- 
ting to  the  suzerainty  of  China. 

Korea  was  also  invaded  by  Japan,  according  to 
Japanese  tradition,  about  a.d.  202,  when  the  Amazon 
Empress  Jingu  subdued  the  King  of  Shinra  of  the 
south-eastern  part  of  the  peninsula,  and  on  the 
strength  of  this  legend  the  Japanese  claim  to  a suze- 
rainty over  Korea  was  not  oflBcially  relinquished 
until  1876.  In  course  of  time  this  led  to  hostility 
between  China  and  Japan,  and  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury Japan  assisted  one  of  the  small  Korean  states 
against  China  unsuccessfully.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  China  and  Korea  were  forced  to  aid  the 
famous  Mongol  Emperor  Kublai  Khan  when  that 
monarch  set  out  with  a great  armada  to  invade 
Japan,  which  met  with  precisely  the  same  fate  as 
that  despatched  by  King  Philip  of  Spain  against 
England.  In  revenge  for  China’s  participation  in 
this  expedition,  for  some  three  centuries  Japanese 

153 


KOREA 


pirates  infested  the  coast  of  China.  No  place  was 
safe  from  their  daring  raids,  and  the  losses  inflicted 
on  the  Chinese  and  their  property  during  this  period 
were  immense. 

These  were,  however,  the  efforts  of  private  adven- 
turers, but  towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  Emperor  Hideyoshi,  who  had  risen  from  a lowly 
state  to  the  first  position  in  Japan,  began  to  formulate 
gigantic  schemes  for  the  conquest  of  China.  He 
proposed  to  the  King  of  Korea  a joint  invasion  of 
China,  and  this  suggestion  being  rejected  he  decided 
to  subdue  Korea  first  as  a stepping-stone  to  the 
greater  project.  With  this  object  he  is  said  to  have 
landed  150,000  men  near  Fusan,  furnished  with  a 
goodly  supply  of  firearms.  The  success  of  the  enter- 
prise was  rapid,  and  in  eighteen  days  the  capital, 
Seoul,  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese, 
for  the  Koreans  were  quite  unprepared  for  war. 
Their  King  fled  into  Liao-tung  to  implore  the  assist- 
ance of  China;  but  three  weeks  later  the  Japanese 
had  captured  Ping-yang,  the  fall  of  this  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom  spreading  terror  throughout 
Korea.  Beyond  this  point  the  Japanese  were  unable 
to  advance  without  the  co-operation  of  their  fleet 
lying  at  Fusan.  It  w^as  ordered  to  sail  round  the 
western  coast  to  the  river  Ta-tong  to  render  assist- 
ance, but  was  attacked  wdth  great  vigour  by  Korean 
seamen,  and  forced  to  return.  A small  army  sent 
by  the  Chinese  from  Liao-tung,  in  answer  to  the 
appeals  of  the  Korean  King,  was  routed,  and  China 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Japan  in  order  to 

154 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


gain  time.  A larger  army  was  meanwhile  collected, 
and  advancing  on  Ping-yang  compelled  the  Japanese 
to  retreat.  Following  up  their  success,  the  Chinese, 
supported  by  ill-armed  Korean  peasants,  attacked 
the  Japanese  at  Seoul,  but  were  repulsed  after  a 
sanguinary  battle,  and  fell  back  on  Ping-yang. 

The  Japanese,  tired  of  the  war  and  hard  pressed 
for  food,  again  consented  to  listen  to  terms  of 
peace,  and  pending  the  discussion,  evacuated  Seoul 
and  retired  to  the  coast.  Negotiations,  however, 
fell  through,  and  a second  invasion  of  Korea  was 
planned;  but  this  time  the  Koreans  were  prepared, 
and  although  the  Japanese  gained  victories  and  occu- 
pied the  capital,  want  of  supplies  compelled  them 
to  retire  to  the  coast  near  Japan,  and  during  this 
march  south  they  sacked  and  burnt  all  the  towns. 
On  reaching  Urusan  they  took  up  a position  to  ward 
off  the  attacks  of  an  immense  army  of  avenging 
Chinese  and  Koreans,  by  which  they  were  followed, 
and  were  besieged  throughout  the  whole  winter, 
undergoing  fearful  hardships  from  lack  of  food, 
water,  and  the  rigours  of  the  climate.  When  almost 
reduced  by  famine  they  were  relieved  by  an  army 
marching  to  their  succour  from  Fusan,  which  defeated 
the  besiegers  after  a desperate  struggle.  On  the 
death  of  Hideyoshi,  this  war,  which  had  lasted  for 
six  years,  from  1592  to  1598,  and  the  only  practical 
result  of  which  was  the  retention  of  Fusan  by  the 
Japanese,  came  to  an  end. 

After  their  terrible  experiences  of  Japanese  inva- 
sions, the  Koreans  adopted  every  means  to  prevent 

155 


KOREA 


foreigners  entering  their  country  in  the  future;  but, 
to  avoid  conflict  with  China  and  Japan,  sent  tribute 
to  Pekin  and  Yedo,  or  Tokio.  Early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  they  were  forced  by  two  invasions 
to  transfer  their  allegiance  to  the  Manchus,  who 
were  then  threatening  the  dynasty  of  the  Ming,  and 
shortly  after  became  rulers  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 
Korea  now  enjoyed  immunity  from  foreign  wars  for 
over  two  centuries,  but  within  her  borders  became 
split  up  into  factions,  which  destroyed  all  tran- 
quillity at  home. 

Although  China  and  Japan  had  in  the  meanwhile 
been  opened  to  the  commerce  of  the  world,  Korea 
still  retained  an  attitude  of  splendid  isolation, 
which  gained  for  her  the  title  of  the  “Hermit 
Kingdom.”  At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Christianity  had  been  introduced  into  the  peninsula 
through  the  conversion  of  some  Koreans  in  Pekin; 
but  when  at  a later  date  some  French  missionaries 
entered  the  country  in  disguise,  and  their  missions 
flourished,  violent  persecutions  of  the  Christians 
were  commenced.  Unable  to  obtain  redress  on 
behalf  of  her  proteges  from  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, the  French  decided  to  coerce  the  Koreans 
themselves  in  1866  by  despatching  a force  to  that 
country.  At  first  they  were  successful,  defeating 
the  Koreans  in  several  engagements;  but  on  meeting 
with  a slight  repulse  in  the  attack  on  a fortified 
monastery,  the  Admiral  in  command  of  the  expedi- 
tion ordered  a retreat. 

Attempts  were  also  made  to  establish  commercial 

156 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


relations  with  Korea  by  France,  Russia,  England, 
and  America,  but  with  ill-success.  In  1871  America 
endeavoured  to  open  out  Korea  to  trade,  as  she  had 
done  in  the  case  of  Japan  some  eighteen  years  before, 
by  fitting  out  an  expedition;  but  effected  nothing 
beyond  capturing  some  five  forts,  and  then  retiring, 
as  the  French  had  done. 

In  1864  the  Ni  Dynasty  had  come  to  an  end  by 
the  sudden  death  of  the  King,  and  after  a series  of 
intrigues  the  recently  deposed  King,  then  a boy, 
was  elected  Emperor  under  the  regency  of  his  father, 
who  was  strongly  opposed  to  all  foreign  encroach- 
ments. Japan  had  meanwhile  — since  the  visit  of 
the  American  fleet  in  1853  — broken  entirely  away 
from  her  former  traditions  of  isolation,  and  as  the 
result  of  an  extraordinary  revolution  the  Shogunate 
fell,  the  Emperor  was  restored  to  absolute  power, 
and  Japan  herself  began  to  follow  Western  methods. 
She  shortly  after  sent  an  invitation  to  Korea  to 
acknowledge  her  ancient  suzerainty  — a suggestion 
that  was  insolently  refused;  but  Japan  was  not  yet 
strong  enough  to  go  to  war  for  the  insult  received, 
so  waited  her  time. 

In  1877  China  annexed  the  strip  of  country,  some 
forty  miles  in  width,  that  had  served  for  many  years 
as  a neutral  zone  between  her  territory  and  that 
of  Korea,  and  which  had  remained  uncultivated 
and  become  the  haunt  of  bandits,  whom  she  had 
cleared  out  in  1875  by  sending  troops  across  the 
border,  and  a gunboat  up  the  Ya-lu  to  destroy  their 
strongholds.  China’s  frontier  now  extended  to  the 

157 


KOREA 

Ya-lu,  and  became  conterminous  with  that  of  Korea. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  same  year,  1875,  a party 
of  Japanese  sailors  landing  for  water  had  been  fired 
on  by  Koreans,  and  some  thirty  of  them  took  repri- 
sals by  storming  a fort  and  killing  its  defenders. 
Japan  decided  to  adopt  strong  measures  in  retalia- 
tion for  this  outrage,  and  sent  a naval  expedition 
to  obtain  redress,  after  securing  China’s  neutrality. 
Impressed  by  a display  of  its  strength,  the  Koreans 
agreed,  on  February  27,  1876,  to  sign  a treaty  open- 
ing Fusan  to  Japanese  trade.  The  lead  given  by 
Japan  was  soon  followed  by  other  nations,  and  within 
the  next  few  years  most  of  the  European  states  had 
also  concluded  treaties  with  Korea,  and  additional 
ports  were  opened  to  trade.  But  the  resources  of 
the  country  proved  poor,  and  little  trade  passed 
through  the  hands  of  Europeans.  The  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  however,  each  retained  their  hold  on 
Korea,  the  former  supporting  Conservative  methods, 
whilst  the  latter  encouraged  a Progressive  party 
which  had  arisen,  and  which  wished  to  introduce 
into  Korea  foreign  customs  and  learning. 

This  position  of  affairs  was  brought  to  a head  in 
1882  by  the  ex-Regent  intriguing  to  drive  the  Jap- 
anese out  by  violence.  A Japanese  oflBcer,  engaged 
to  drill  Korean  troops,  and  seven  others  were  mur- 
dered, whilst  the  Japanese  Legation  was  sacked, 
and  the  Minister  and  his  guard  of  twenty-eight 
Japanese  were  obliged  to  fight  their  way  from  Seoul 
to  the  sea,  where  they  were  rescued  by  a British 
gunboat. 


158 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


The  Chinese  on  this  occasion  assisted  the  Japanese 
in  obtaining  redress  for  the  outrage,  and,  after  the 
requisite  satisfaction  had  been  obtained  by  the 
latter,  captured  the  ex-Regent,  and  transported  him 
to  China  where  he  was  detained  for  several  years. 

Two  years  later,  however,  a fresh  outbreak  occurred 
and  again  the  Japanese  Legation  was  burnt  and  the 
Japanese  compelled  to  fight  their  way  to  the  sea, 
attacked  this  time  by  Chinese  troops  under  Yuan- 
shi-kai,  as  well  as  the  Korean  mob.  Korea  was  once 
more  forced  to  apologise,  to  pay  an  indemnity,  to 
punish  the  murderers  of  a Japanese  officer,  and  to 
rebuild  the  Legation  at  her  own  expense.  China 
was  dealt  wdth  separately.  Both  China  and  Japan 
had  sent  naval  and  military  forces  to  Korea  to  pro- 
tect their  interests,  but  collision  was  avoided,  and 
Li-hung-chang  and  Count  Ito  were  deputed  to  rep- 
resent their  respective  Governments  in  the  negotia- 
tions which  followed.  The  Tientsin  Convention, 
signed  in  1885,  stipulated  that  both  countries  should 
w^ithdraw  troops  from  Korea;  that  no  more  officers 
from  either  country  should  be  sent  to  drill  the  Korean 
troops;  and  that  if  at  any  time  either  country  should 
find  it  necessary  to  despatch  troops  there,  the  other 
should  be  informed.  Peace  was  now  secured  in 
Korea  for  the  next  nine  years. 

About  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
religious  sect,  known  as  the  Tong-haks,  had  arisen, 
which  in  course  of  time  attracted  many  adherents, 
who  nurtured  grievances  against  the  Government 
on  account  of  their  originator  being  executed  during 

159 


KOREA 


the  persecutions  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  1865. 
Some  twenty-eight  years  later  they  demanded  from 
the  King  that  their  martyred  leader  should  be  declared 
innocent,  and  accorded  posthumous  rank,  and  threat- 
ened to  drive  out  all  the  foreigners  from  the  country 
if  their  demand  was  not  granted.  Dissatisfied  with 
the  result  of  their  mission,  they  arose  in  rebellion, 
which  soon  assumed  most  alarming  proportions. 
The  Government  forces  despatched  to  suppress  the 
movement  were  defeated,  and  in  their  consternation 
the  Korean  Government,  in  June,  1894,  appealed  to 
China  for  assistance.  In  response,  China  sent  a 
small  force  of  about  2,000  men  to  Asan,  and  the 
moral  effect  of  this  landing,  combined  with  some 
small  success  by  the  Korean  troops,  checked  the 
progress  of  the  rebellion  for  the  time. 

The  Japanese  Government  had  been  informed  that 
the  force  w’as  being  sent  from  China,  and  at  once 
resolved  to  send  troops  also.  Accordingly,  men-of- 
war  w'ere  despatched  to  Chemulpo  to  escort  the 
Japanese  Minister,  Mr.  Otori,  from  Japan  to  the 
capital.  He  was  accompanied  from  the  coast  to 
Seoul  by  400  marines  as  a preliminary  measure, 
whilst  Japan  prepared  to  send  far  larger  forces, 
which  shortly  follow^ed,  to  protect  her  interests. 
The  presence  of  both  Chinese  and  Japanese  troops 
in  the  country  naturally  produced  a difficult  situa- 
tion, for  whilst  China  continued  to  assert  her  suze- 
rainty over  Korea,  Japan  refused  to  acknowiedge  it. 
Matters  w^ere  still  further  complicated  by  Japan 
proposing  that  reforms  should  be  instituted  for  the 

160 


AH(’II  KHE('TEl)  TO  COMMEMORATE  THE  S .1  C (.’ A T I O X 
OF  KOREA  RY  CHINA 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


future  better  government  of  the  country,  and  asking 
China  to  assist  her  in  enforcing  them.  China,  not 
wishing  to  interfere  in  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
peninsula,  refused  to  join  in  such  measures;  but 
the  Japanese  were  masters  of  the  capital,  whereas 
the  Chinese  had  only  a small  force  in  the  country 
at  the  coast,  and  Mr.  Otori  insisted  that  the  reforms 
should  be  carried  out.  A very  grave  situation  arose, 
as  neither  China  nor  Japan  would  yield  and  pros- 
pects of  peace  became  almost  hopeless.  Yuan-shi- 
kai,  the  Chinese  Minister  at  Seoul,  returned  to  China 
on  July  19,  and  the  following  day  Mr.  Otori  deliv- 
ered an  ultimatum  to  the  Korean  Government, 
demanding  that  the  Japanese  reforms  should  be 
accepted  unconditionally  within  three  days,  and 
that  the  Chinese  troops  should  be  ordered  to  with- 
draw. On  July  22  the  Korean  Government  replied 
that  the  Chinese  troops  had  come  at  their  request, 
and  would  not  leave  until  asked  to  do  so. 

Thereupon  the  Japanese  decided  to  attack  the 
King’s  Palace  next  morning,  and,  after  a short 
engagement,  drove  out  the  Korean  troops  and  cap- 
tured the  King.  This  accomplished,  they  proceeded 
to  remodel  the  Government,  and  placed  the  ex- 
Regent,  the  persecutor  of  Christians,  the  hater  of 
foreigners,  and  the  intriguer  confined  in  China  for 
years  because  suspected  of  having  instituted  the 
attack  on  the  Japanese  in  1882,  in  a position  of 
authority.  He,  however,  soon  resigned. 

Meanwhile  China  and  Japan  both  prepared  to 
reinforce  their  troops  in  Korea,  and  to  enter  upon 

161 


KOREA 


the  war  which  proved  so  disastrous  for  the  former, 
and  revealed  for  the  first  time  to  the  world  the  power 
of  the  latter,  who  gained  for  herself  a position  amongst 
the  great  civilised  nations.  To  follow  the  course  of 
this  struggle  in  detail  is  naturally  beyond  the  scope 
of  this  book.  Both  on  sea  and  land  Japan  quickly 
demonstrated  her  great  superiority,  and  soon  forced 
her  huge  unwieldy  opponent  to  sue  for  peace.  It  is 
of  interest  to  note,  however  the  close  similarity 
between  the  Japanese  strategy  of  this  campaign 
and  that  of  the  greater  one  ten  years  later  when 
opposed  to  a European  Power. 

Actual  hostilities  broke  out  some  days  before  the 
formal  declaration  of  war  (on  August  1)  by  a naval 
fight  at  Phung  Island,  on  July  25,  between  three 
Japanese  and  two  Chinese  ships,  in  which  the  latter 
were  rapidly  disabled,  and  a transport  carrying 
1,200  Chinese  was  sunk.  The  Chinese  troops  already 
in  Korea  were  further  routed,  on  July  29,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Asan,  but  some  1,500  fugitives 
managed  to  make  their  way  north  by  devious  routes 
to  Ping-yang. 

On  August  10  Admiral  Ito,  with  a fleet  of  twenty 
Japanese  war- vessels,  made  demonstrations  before 
Port  Arthur  and  Wei-hai-wei,  the  two  naval  ports 
of  China,  in  order  to  cover  the  movement  of  Japanese 
transports  conveying  troops  into  Korea  by  way  of 
Chemulpo,  Gensan,  and  Fusan.  The  Chinese  armies 
of  the  three  Manchurian  provinces  were  meanwhile 
being  marched  south  to  Ping-yang  and  the  Ya-lu, 
near  the  mouth  of  which  was  the  chief  landing-place 

162 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 

for  their  troops  which  were  being  transported  by 
sea. 

The  next  event  of  importance  was  the  capture  of 
Ping-yang,  a walled  city,  occupying  a naturally 
strong  position  on  the  Tatong  River,  which  was  held 
by  13,000  Chinese,  and  had  been  greatly  strength- 
ened by  fortifications  erected  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Against  this  position  the  Japanese  advanced  from  the 
south  with  a total  force  of  about  14,000  men  under 
command  of  Lieutenant-General  Nodzu,  and  captured 
it  on  September  15  with  a loss  of  a little  over  600  men, 
whilst  the  Chinese,  during  their  disorderly  fiight,  are 
said  to  have  lost  1,500  n killed  alone.  This  battle 
practically  ended  the  Korean  part  of  the  campaign, 
for  the  Chinese  retired  north  beyond  the  Ya-lu. 

During  a naval  battle  off  Hai-yang  Island  on  the 
17th,  the  Chinese  were  heavily  defeated,  losing  four 
of  their  vessels,  or  nearly  a third  of  their  fighting- 
force,  whereas  the  Japanese  lost  none.  This  naval 
victory  contributed  largely  to  the  success  of  subse- 
quent Japanese  operations,  as  it  placed  the  command 
of  the  sea  in  their  hands. 

The  troops  about  Ping-yang,  consisting  of  the 
3rd  and  5th  Divisions,  were  formed  into  the  Japanese 
First  Armj%  under  command  of  Marshal  Yamagata, 
and  reached  Wi-chu  about  October  20.  A Second 
Army,  consisting  of  a division  and  a brigade,  was 
also  formed  under  Marshal  Oyama,  and  successfully 
landed  some  thirty  miles  east  of  Pi-tzu-wo,  on  the 
Manchurian  coast,  on  October  24,  and  twelve  sub- 
sequent days.  About  the  same  time  the  First  Army 

163 


KOREA 


forced  the  passage  of  the  Ya-lu  exactly  as  they  did 
some  ten  years  later,  when  opposed  by  Russian 
troops,  by  demonstrating  before  Antung  and  cross- 
ing and  attacking  about  Chiu-lien-cheng.  But  the 
battle  in  this  instance  only  lasted  four  hours,  the 
Japanese  loss  being  under  150  men  in  killed  and 
wounded,  whilst  about  500  Chinese  who  fell  were 
buried;  and  many  guns,  rifles,  and  large  quantities 
of  ammunition  became  the  spoil  of  the  victors  on 
October  26.  Feng-huang-cheng  was  occupied  on 
the  30th,  and  the  Chinese  army  appears  to  have 
dispersed.  The  3rd  Division  further  captured  Ta- 
ku-shan  and  Hsiu-yen,  whilst  the  5th  reached  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Motien  Ling. 

The  Second  Army  drove  the  Chinese  out  of  Chin- 
chou  on  November  5 and  6;  and  the  Ta-lien-wan 
forts,  though  modern  and  heavily  armed,  were 
abandoned  by  the  garrisons,  who  fired  a few  shots 
and  fled.  The  spoils  captured  were  enormous, 
including  nearly  2,500,000  rounds  of  ammunition 
for  the  guns,  and  nearly  34,000,000  rounds  for  small 
arms,  besides  129  guns,  food,  horses,  etc. 

The  advance  was  now  continued  on  Port  Arthur, 
which  was  reputed  to  be  held  by  13,000  Chinese, 
strongly  fortified,  and  armed  with  modern  guns. 
This  formidable  fortress  fell  in  a single  day  — Novem- 
ber 21  — with  a loss  to  the  Japanese  of  about  18 
killed  and  250  wounded!  It  is  said  that  the  docks, 
machinery,  and  other  spoils  captured  here  repre- 
sented a value  of  over  six  millions  sterling;  and  their 
defence  had  been  despicable. 

164 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


Towards  the  end  of  November  the  5th  Division 
of  the  First  Army  were  engaged  about  the  Motien 
Ling;  and  the  Chinese  Amur  Army  was  defeated 
before  Feng-huang-cheng,  and  its  persistent  efforts 
to  recapture  that  place  successfully  repulsed.  In 
the  meantime  the  3rd  Division,  pushing  forward 
from  Hsiu-yen,  brushed  aside  Chinese  forces  opposed 
to  it,  and  captured  Hai-cheng  on  December  13,  and 
here  it  successfully  maintained  itself  in  face  of 
Chinese  armies  located  about  Liao-yang,  New- 
chwang,  and  Ying-kou,  which  made  several  futile 
attempts  to  drive  the  Japanese  back. 

After  the  fall  of  Port  Arthur,  the  Japanese  Second 
Army  appear  to  have  rested  on  their  laurels  for 
some  weeks,  and  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  Decem- 
ber that  any  effort  was  made  to  co-operate  with  the 
First  Army  by  advancing  north.  Then  Major- 
General  Nogi,  with  a mixed  brigade  of  some  8,000 
men,  moved  forward  on  Kai-ping,  before  which 
place  he  arrived  on  January  9.  The  town  was  held 
by  some  4,000  to  5,000  Chinese,  who  occupied  a 
strong  position  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river;  but 
after  three  hours’  fighting  on  the  10th  the  town  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Japanese  at  a cost  of  a little 
over  300  killed  and  wounded.  Communications 
between  the  two  portions  of  the  First  and  Second 
Armies  were  now  established,  and  a defensive  line 
taken  up  for  a time. 

Turning  to  operations  in  the  south,  the  2nd  Divi- 
sion had  been  sent  out  from  Japan  to  join  the  Second 
Army,  and,  leaving  one  brigade  to  guard  Port  Arthur 

165 


KOREA 


and  Ta-lien-wan,  Marshal  Oyama  sailed  from  the 
latter  place  on  January  19  with  one  division  and  one 
brigade,  in  fifty  transports,  to  seize  Mei-hai-wei. 
The  campaign  proved  short  and  decisive:  the  first 
troops  landed  on  January  20,  and  by  February  16 
the  Japanese  were  in  possession  of  the  forts  and  ships. 

Towards  the  middle  of  February  the  Chinese  again 
became  active  in  the  north,  and  made  several  feeble 
attempts  to  recapture  Hai-cheng  before  the  Japanese 
again  assumed  the  offensive.  The  Japanese  blows 
were  rapid,  and  the  Chinese  armies  were  dispersed, 
and  New-chwang  and  Ying-kou  captured  early  in 
March.  These  successes  practically  terminated  the 
war,  as  China  was  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  Jap- 
anese, of  whom  some  100,000  troops  w'ere  assembled 
on  Chinese  soil,  and  ready  to  administer  the  coup 
de  grace.  Li-hung-chang  w’as  now  entrusted  with  the 
mission  to  treat  with  Japan  for  peace,  and  reached 
Shimonoseki  on  March  19.  Negotiations  were  de- 
layed for  a time  by  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  a 
Japanese  fanatic  to  shoot  him  on  the  24th,  whereby 
the  aged  statesman  was  w^ounded.  Happily,  he 
soon  recovered,  and  on  April  17,  1895,  the  Treaty 
of  Shimonoseki  was  signed  betw^een  China  and 
Japan.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty,  China  agreed 
to  recognise  the  complete  independence  of  Korea; 
to  cede  to  Japan  the  island  of  Formosa,  the  Pesca- 
dores group  of  islands,  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula,  and 
other  territory;  and  to  pay  an  indemnity  of  over 
$125,000,000. 

A coalition  formed  by  Russia,  France,  and  Ger- 

166 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


many,  however,  now  stepped  in,  and  advised  Japan 
to  relinquish  her  claims  on  the  Liao-tung  Peninsula, 
to  which  she  consented;  and,  as  subsequent  history 
showed,  Russia  was  not  slow  to  avail  herself  of  this 
concession,  for  three  years  later  she  concluded  a 
convention  with  China,  by  which  Port  Arthur  and 
Ta-lien-wan,  and  the  adjacent  waters,  were  leased 
to  her  for  twenty -five  years. 

But  before  that  the  Octopus  of  the  north  had  been 
stretching  out  her  tentacles  tow'ards  Korea.  That 
distressful  country  was  soon  after  this  war  overrun 
by  undesirable  emigrants  from  Japan,  who  created 
a bad  impression  by  their  aggressive  attitude,  and 
caused  further  friction  between  the  two  races.  A 
strong  anti-Japanese  party  existed  in  Korea,  headed 
by  the  Queen,  who  soon  became  so  powerful,  and  by 
her  political  sagacity  so  frequently  checkmated  their 
schemes  for  reform,  that  it  was  decided  she  should 
be  made  away  with.  She  was  barbarously  assas- 
sinated on  October  8,  1895,  in  her  own  palace,  and 
the  King’s  father,  the  ex-Regent,  practically  assumed 
the  reins  of  government,  whilst  the  King  remained 
virtually  a prisoner. 

Early  in  1896  the  guard  of  the  Russian  Minister 
at  Seoul  had  been  largely  increased,  and  much  excite- 
ment was  caused  throughout  the  country  by  the 
escape  of  the  King  and  Crown  Prince  from  the 
palace,  and  their  taking  refuge  in  the  Russian  Lega- 
tion. From  here  the  King  issued  a proclamation 
calling  on  his  subjects  to  protect  him  and  avenge 
the  death  of  the  Queen.  Several  of  the  Ministers 

167 


KOREA 


were  murdered;  the  Japanese  lost  their  influence, 
and  for  the  moment  the  Russians  were  supreme. 
Later,  in  answer  to  appeals  from  his  people,  the 
King  left  the  shelter  of  the  Russian  Legation,  and, 
assuming  the  title  of  Emperor,  occupied  a palace 
in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

The  Japanese  accepted  the  situation,  and  entered 
mto  an  arrangement  with  the  Russians  whereby 
they  agreed  to  retain  only  three  companies  of  infantry 
in  the  country  to  protect  the  Fusan-Seoul  telegraph- 
line,  while  companies  not  exceeding  200  men  each 
were  to  guard  the  Japanese  settlements,  two  being 
stationed  at  Seoul,  one  at  Fusan,  and  another  at 
Gensan.  Forces  of  similar  strength  were  to  be 
maintained  by  Russia  for  the  protection  of  her 
Legation  and  consulates. 

A monopoly  was  soon  obtained  by  a Russian 
merchant  for  the  right  of  cutting  timber  on  the 
Ya-lu  and  Tumen  rivers  for  a period  of  twenty-five 
years;  a Russo-Korean  bank  was  formed,  and  Rus- 
sian subjects  began  to  purchase  land,  and  received 
mining  and  other  concessions,  and  a Russian  lan- 
guage school  was  started  by  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment. When,  however,  Russia  attempted  to  depose 
the  Englishman  who  had  for  some  time  most  ably 
controlled  the  Korean  Customs  and  Treasury,  by 
substituting  a Russian  in  his  place,  the  British  fleet 
appeared  in  Chemulpo,  and  the  Russians  gave  way 
on  this  point. 

Early  in  1898,  as  previously  stated,  Russia  ob- 
tained the  lease  of  Port  Arthur  from  the  Chinese, 

168 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 

and  entered  into  a fresh  treaty  with  Japan  regarding 
Korea.  Both  Powers  definitely  recognised  the  inde- 
pendence of  Korea,  and  pledged  themselves  mutually 
to  abstain  from  all  direct  interference  in  the  internal 
affairs  of  that  country.  They  further  agreed  to 
take  no  measures  regarding  the  appointment  of 
military  instructors  or  provincial  advisers,  without 
previous  mutual  understanding;  and  Russia  also 
consented  not  to  hinder  the  development  of  com- 
mercial and  industrial  relations  between  Japan  and 
Korea. 

For  some  years  Korea  enjoyed  comparative  pros- 
perity, and  there  were  undoubted  signs  of  progress. 
Many  foreigners  were  doing  business  in  the  country, 
more  schools  were  started,  electric  tramways  were 
introduced;  the  army  was  supplied  with  modern 
weapons,  and  drilled  on  modern  lines;  native  news- 
papers flourished;  and  Korea  entered  the  Postal 
Union.  Christianity  also  about  this  time  appears 
to  have  made  great  headway  among  the  people,  and 
a number  of  the  better  educated  and  foreign-trained 
Koreans  were  clearly  desirous  of  genuine  reform. 

The  struggle  between  Japan  and  Russia  for  pre- 
dominance in  Korea,  still  continued,  however,  and 
claims  and  counter-claims  were  put  forward  by  each 
in  turn,  so  that  it  soon  became  quite  apparent  that 
Russia  had  no  intention  of  adhering  to  her  agree- 
ment with  Japan.  Her  aggressions  had  hitherto 
been  chiefly  limited  to  Manchuria,  but,  taking 
advantage  of  the  timber  concession  granted  to  one 
of  her  subjects,  she  proceeded  to  occupy  Yong-am-po, 

169 


KOREA 


in  Korean  territory  — at  the  mouth  of  the  Ya-lu  — 
with  her  troops,  and  to  build  up  a Russian  station 
there. 

With  a footing  once  obtained  in  Korea,  this 
menace,  if  unchecked,  meant  the  gradual  absorp- 
tion of  the  whole  of  that  country  under  Russian 
rule,  and  sounded  the  knell  of  the  Japanese  Empire 
if  successfully  accomplished.  The  peninsula,  as  will 
be  seen,  is  thrust  out  in  a southerly  direction  from 
Manchuria  for  a distance  of  over  400  miles  towards 
Japan,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ya-lu  to  Fusan  in  a 
direct  line.  At  its  south-eastern  extremity  it  is 
separated  from  the  coast  of  Japan  by  a narrow 
channel  barely  100  miles  in  width,  in  the  midst  of 
which  is  set  the  island  of  Tsu-shima.  With  Korea 
a Russian  province  the  very  existence  of  Japan  as 
an  independent  nation  would  be  most  seriously 
threatened. 

But  Japan  was  not  thus  tamely  going  to  submit 
to  the  unwarranted  aggressions  of  her  great  rival. 
For  years  past  she  had  been  steadily  building 
up  both  her  army  and  navy,  and  now  felt  strong 
enough  to  speak.  Into  the  details  of  the  negotiations 
that  followed  it  is  unnecessary  to  go,  but  finally,  on 
January  13,  1904,  Japan  replied  for  the  last  time, 
accepting  the  Russian  proposal  that,  with  respect  to 
Russia’s  action  in  Manchuria  (in  her  refusal  to 
withdraw  from  that  country  in  the  face  of  solemn 
pledges  to  do  so),  Japan  would  consent  to  regard 
that  as  a question  exclusively  between  Russia 
and  China,  on  condition  that  Russia  acknowledged 

170 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


Korea  to  be  outside  her  sphere  of  influence.  An 
early  reply  was  asked  for,  and  as  none  was  forth- 
coming diplomatic  relations  were  broken  off,  and  the 
sanguinary  conflict  commenced,  with  the  result  that 
is  well  known.  Japan  secured  all  the  advantages 
for  which  she  had  fought  by  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Portsmouth,  except  that  only  half  the 
island  of  Sakhalin  was  restored  to  her. 

On  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  Japanese  took  pos- 
session of  Seoul,  but  behaved  with  great  moderation 
to  the  Koreans,  and  treated  the  people  well  by  pay- 
ing for  all  food  requisitioned,  and  remunerating 
handsomely  the  thousands  of  carriers  pressed  into 
their  services  for  transport  purposes.  Practically 
the  whole  administration  of  the  country  was,  how- 
ever, taken  over  by  the  Japanese,  and  before  long 
martial  law  was  rigidly  enforced:  her  actions  now 
became  so  pronouncedly  harsh  that  the  sympathies 
of  the  foreign  element  in  Korea  were  gradually 
entirely  alienated  from  Japan  when  it  could  no 
longer  be  doubted  that  she  intended  to  destroy  com- 
pletely the  independence  of  Korea.  Events  moved 
quickly:  Marquis  (now  Prince)  Ito  was  appointed 
Japanese  Resident-General  in  Korea.  The  Emperor 
abdicated  under  pressure  in  favour  of  his  son  on 
July  19,  1907,  and  on  the  31st  a rescript  was 
issued  in  the  name  of  the  new  Emperor  disbanding 
the  Korean  Army.  This  led  to  great  excitement;  the 
troops  mutinied,  serious  riots  took  place,  and  the 
houses  of  the  Cabinet  Ministers  were  attacked  and 
burnt  by  the  mob.  Although  the  capital  was  over- 

171 


KOREA 


awed  by  General  Hasegawa  and  his  troops,  risings 
took  place  in  many  of  the  districts  against  the 
Japanese,  and  troops  were  hurried  from  Japan  to 
restore  order. 

The  insurrection  rapidly  spread,  and  insurgent 
bands  roamed  the  hills,  where  they  have  been  since 
hunted  down,  and  were  still  in  January,  1909,  being 
harassed  by  numerous  Japanese  columns.  In 
November  last  Lieutenant-General  Okasaki,  lately 
commanding  the  13th  Division  in  Korea,  stated  that 
these  insurgents  were  then  merely  bandits,  but  were 
likely  to  give  trouble  for  a long  time  to  come.  The 
Division  had  been  broken  up  into  270  detachments, 
and  they  were  being  assisted  by  4,000  gendarmes 
(of  whom  30  per  cent,  were  Japanese,  and  the 
rest  Koreans)  in  harrying  the  rebels. 

This,  then,  was  the  condition  of  Korea  during 
our  visit  to  that  troubled  land  in  October,  1908, 
and  yet  on  the  surface  there  were  few  indications 
of  the  restless  state  of  the  country  visible  to  the 
ordinary  traveller  passing  through.  At  the  impor- 
tant towns,  such  as  Ping-yang,  Seoul,  and  Fusan, 
and  along  the  entire  length  of  the  railway  from  New 
Wi-chu  to  Fusan,  from  the  north  to  the  south  of  the 
peninsula,  the  inhabitants  everywhere  appeared 
to  be  pursuing  their  usual  avocations,  and  one  could 
not  help  being  struck  by  the  quiet  and  orderly 
demeanour  of  the  Korean  wherever  met  with.  That 
Korea  has  utterly  and  completely  lost  her  independ- 
ence it  is  futile  to  deny.  The  present  Emperor  is  a 
mere  puppet  in  the  hands  of  the  Japanese,  and  his 

172 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


Ministers  are  but  tools,  the  whole  of  the  administra- 
tion and  government  of  the  country  being  actually 
under  the  direction  of  the  representatives  of  the 
Government  of  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun. 

And  though  one’s  sympathies  are  naturally  drawn 
towards  the  weaker  race,  apart  from  the  fact  that 
there  is  something  peculiarly  attractive  about  the 
Korean,  in  spite  of  his  lazy,  indolent  nature,  and 
since  there  is  little  room  for  doubt  but  that  the  whole 
nation  has  been  most  hardly  and  unjustly  dealt  with 
by  Japan,  yet,  it  seems  to  me,  there  is  a general 
inclination  to  judge  her  actions  too  harshly  in  respect 
to  the  subjugation  of  Korea.  Insufficient  stress  is 
laid  on  the  fact  that  Korea,  either  absolutely  inde- 
pendent or  as  a vassal  of  Japan,  is  essential  for  the 
future  progress  and  even  security  of  Japan. 

From  what  has  gone  before  it  will  be  seen  that 
Korea  is  incapable  of  managing  her  affairs.  Left 
to  herself,  the  country  has  always  degenerated  into 
a hotbed  of  intrigue  and  been  rent  by  internal  dis- 
sensions, and  so  would  always  be  at  the  mercy  of 
some  foreign  Power,  or  combination  of  Powers,  who 
felt  strong  enough  to  take  advantage  of  her  defence- 
lessness and  defy  the  protestations  of  Japan.  The 
experiences  of  the  Island  Empire  in  the  past  have 
not  been  of  such  a nature  as  to  inspire  her  with 
confidence  in  the  solemn  pledges  made  by  those 
with  whom  she  has  entered  into  Treaty  relations 
regarding  the  recognition  of  the  absolute  and  com- 
plete independence  of  Korea.  For  this  article  of 
her  faith  within  the  short  period  of  ten  years  she 

173 


KOREA 


was  plunged  into  two  costly  wars,  in  the  last  of 
which  the  whole  resources  of  the  Empire  were  strained 
to  the  utmost  limit,  and  only  after  a vast  expendi- 
ture of  blood  and  money  did  she  issue  triumphant 
from  the  ordeal,  having  secured  the  independence  of 
Korea.  Consider  the  enormous  sacrifices  that  she 
had  to  make  to  attain  this  result,  and  how  crippled 
she  emerged  from  the  Titanic  struggle  financially, 
and  then  soberly  reflect  whether  any  nation,  hav- 
ing passed  through  the  crisis  that  she  had,  w’ould 
voluntarily  have  acted  differently  by  withdraw- 
ing, knowing  the  incompetence  of  Korea  to  rule 
herself. 

Japan  is  a poor  country;  taxation  weighs  heavily 
upon  her,  and  she  must  obtain  fresh  markets  and 
land  near  by  which  can  be  colonised  by  her  surplus 
population ; and  strategically  and  commercially  Korea 
has  been  ordained  as  that  land.  The  new  Japan, 
however,  is  young  and  has  much  to  learn  in  the 
matter  of  colonisation,  and  her  efforts  hitherto  have 
chiefly  resulted  in  her  stern  hand  having  completely 
alienated  the  subject-race  from  herself.  But  she 
is  gradually  buying  her  experience,  and,  knowing 
her  faculty  for  adopting  the  methods  successfully 
employed  by  others,  it  is  not  too  much  to  predict 
that,  with  more  consideration  for  the  conquered  race, 
and  a fair  and  just  appreciation  of  the  policy  of  the 
“open  door,”  Korea  should  be  destined  to  form  a 
bright  jewel  in  the  crown  of  the  Rising  Sun. 

Before  bringing  this  chapter  to  a close  it  will  not 
be  out  of  place  here  to  present  to  the  reader  a thumb- 

174 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


nail  sketch  of  the  country  and  its  inhabitants,  so 
that  a better  understanding  may  be  arrived  at  as 
to  character  of  the  folk  and  of  the  scenery  of  this 
fascinating  country. 

The  peninsula  of  Korea  varies  in  length  from  400 
to  600  miles,  and  has  a mean  breadth  of  about  150 
miles.  Speaking  generally,  the  country  is  extremely 
mountainous,  and  furnished  with  many  streams, 
some  being  rivers  of  considerable  size:  such  as  the 
Chon -chon,  about  An-chu;  the  Ta-tong,  on  which 
Ping-yang  is  situated;  and  the  Han,  near  the  capital. 
The  country  is  almost  purely  agricultural,  large 
areas  of  rice  being  cultivated  in  the  valleys  and  the 
smaller  plains  between  the  mountains;  but  as  the 
Korean  is  little  inclined  to  grow  more  than  sufficient 
for  his  own  requirements,  there  is  still  scope  for 
extending  enterprises  in  the  direction  of  agriculture. 
A single  line  of  rail,  close  on  600  miles  in  length, 
traverses  the  peninsula  from  north  to  south,  from 
the  Ya-lu  to  Fusan.  The  southern  portion  of  this 
line,  as  far  north  as  Seoul,  was  completed  under 
Japanese  direction,  before  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Russia,  and  since  the  war  this  has  been  extended 
north  to  the  Ya-lu,  opposite  An-tung.  A small 
branch  line,  25  to  30  miles  in  length,  connects  the 
capital  with  the  coast  at  Chemulpo,  which  is  distant 
about  300  miles  by  sea  from  Port  Arthur.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  above  harbour,  Korea  possesses  many 
excellent  ports,  particularly  on  the  southern  and 
western  coasts;  but  on  the  east,  Gensan,  nearly  due 
east  of  Ping-yang,  is  the  only  one  of  any  value. 

175 


KOREA 


As  regards  the  inhabitants  one  is  particularly 
struck,  on  crossing  the  Ya-lu,  by  the  abrupt  change 
from  the  prevailing  blue  colour  of  the  garments 
worn  by  the  Chinese  on  the  north  bank  to  the  almost 
universal  white  worn  by  the  Koreans  on  the  South. 
The  Korean  gentleman  wears  long,  loose,  baggy 
white  trousers,  inserted  into  white  socks  of  kid-like 
looking  material,  which  are  encased  probably  in 
brown  shoes.  A small,  short  white  jacket  covers 
the  upper  portion  of  his  body,  and  when  he  takes 
his  walks  abroad  this  is  surmounted  by  a long, 
cream-coloured  garment  of  light  texture  — a species 
of  long  covert-coat  — which  adds  a composure  and 
dignity  to  his  appearance  that  is  still  further  height- 
ened by  his  peculiar  tall  hat,  made  either  of  fine 
bamboo  gauze-work,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  more 
aflBuent,  of  horse,  or  even  human,  hair.  With  a 
long  pipe  in  his  mouth,  the  bowl  supported  by  his 
hand,  and  an  air  of  repose  and  affability  in  his 
leisurely  gait,  it  would  be  impossible  to  regard  him 
as  anything  but  what  he  actually  is  — a gentleman. 

The  common  coolie  of  the  street  also  affects  a 
similar  dress,  except  that  his  socks  and  shoes  are 
somewhat  less  elaborate,  and,  from  lack  of  means, 
he  cannot  do  otherwise  than  dispense  wdth  the  tall 
hat  and  long,  flowing  overcoat;  but  he  w^ears  the 
baggy  trousers  and  the  little  short  jacket,  and  his 
head  is  either  bare  or  he  twists  a handkerchief  over 
it.  Pigtails  are  only  worn  by  small  unmarried  boys, 
the  other  males  either  cutting  their  hair  short  or 
wearing  it  in  the  form  of  a top-knot.  The  top-knot 

176 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


was  formerly  the  sign  of  a youth  having  reached 
man’s  estate,  but  under  present  conditions  a large 
number  of  the  male  population  wear  their  hair  short 
like  the  Japanese. 

In  Ping-yang  the  women  like  the  men,  are  dressed 
from  head  to  foot  in  white,  their  garments  being  of 
a peculiar  nature.  Their  ideas  of  modest  display 
are  somewhat  different  from  those  obtaining  in  the 
West,  and  the  upper  portions  of  their  bodies  are  clad 
in  a very  short  jacket,  fastened  across  the  chest  with 
tape,  and  from  the  restraint  of  which,  more  often 
than  not,  their  breasts  are  allowed  to  escape,  and 
remain  freely  exposed.  Over  baggy  trousers  con- 
taining apparently  many  yards  of  cloth,  which  they 
also  affect,  they  wear  a long  white  apron-sort  of 
garment  secured  about  the  waist,  and  reaching  to 
below  the  knees.  Their  hair  is  generally  done  up 
into  a knot,  and  their  head-dress  merely  consists  of 
a kerchief  fastened  across  the  forehead  over  it.  In 
Seoul  large  numbers  of  women  of  the  better  class, 
seen  in  the  street  during  the  daytime,  conceal  most 
of  their  forms  by  green  mantles,  which  are  placed 
over  their  heads,  and  held  together  in  front  with 
their  hands;  whilst  the  long  empty  sleeves,  which 
appear  to  spring  from  near  the  top  of  the  head, 
hang  loosely  on  each  side. 

Personally,  I was  extremely  agreeably  impressed 
by  the  outward  appearance  of  the  people,  who  are  a 
fine-looking  race  — particularly  the  men,  amongst 
whom  many  handsome  intelligent  faces  are  seen. 
The  women,  it  struck  me,  with  my  Western  notions, 

177 


KOREA 


were  not,  as  a rule,  so  fortunately  endowed  in  this 
respect.  As  a nation,  the  men  are  certainly  far 
handsomer  than  either  Japanese  or  Chinese,  though 
the  ladies  are  inferior  to  both  in  the  matter  of  good 
looks.  In  mental  capacity,  moreover,  I am  told  by 
those  who  have  instructed  both  Japanese  and  Korean 
youths  that  the  latter  are  the  superior,  as  they  far 
excel  the  former  in  their  ability  to  acquire  foreign 
languages,  and  are  in  no  wise  inferior  to  them  in 
other  branches  of  learning.  They  lack,  however, 
the  grit,  determination,  and  perseverance  which  is 
so  characteristic  of  their  conquerors,  and  this  is 
probably  due  to  centuries  of  oppression. 

Indolence  pervades  the  whole  nation,  and  is  very 
clearly  and  amusingly  brought  out  in  a clever  little 
book  called  “Korean  Sketches,”  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Gale,  who  has  laboured  for  years  amongst  the  Koreans 
as  a missionary.  His  description  of  the  coolie  at 
work  digging  is  excellent.  It  is  common  — almost 
usual  — in  India  to  see  two  coolies  man-handle  a 
shovel,  but  in  Korea  I have  seen  four  men  thus 
employed,  and  a friend  of  Mr.  Gale  describes  in 
comic  manner  five  men  doing  the  work  of  one. 

Nor  are  the  better  classes  possessed  of  more  vigour, 
for  Mr.  Gale  tells  us:  “No  gentleman  indulges  in 
manual  labour,  or,  in  fact,  in  labour  of  any  kind. 
His  life  consists  in  one  supreme  command  of  coolie 
service,  while  the  coolie  responds  to  every  order. 
The  lighting  of  his  pipe  or  the  rubbing  of  ink  on  the 
ink-stone  must  be  done  for  him.  Down  to  the 
simplest  requirements  of  life  he  does  nothing,  so  his 

178 


A COVETED  KINGDOM 


hands  become  soft,  and  his  finger-nails  grow  long. 
From  constant  sitting,  his  bones  seem  to  disinte- 
grate, and  he  becomes  almost  a mollusc  before  he 
passes  middle-life.”  And  again:  “So  he  passes  from 
us,  one  of  the  last  and  most  unique  remains  of  a 
civilisation  that  has  lived  its  day.  His  composure, 
his  mastery  of  self,  his  moderation,  his  kindliness, 
his  scholarly  attainments,  his  dignity,  his  absolute 
good-for-nothingness,  or,  better,  unfitness  for  the 
world  he  lives  in,  all  combine  to  make  him  a mystery 
of  humanity,  that  you  cannot  but  feel  kindly  toward 
and  intensely  interested  in.” 

When  those  who  know  well  thus  describe  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  Korean  nation,  is  it  any  cause  for 
astonishment  that  Japan  should  elect  to  rule  the 
country  herself.^ 


179 


CHAPTER  XVI 


IN  THE  LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

WE  were  up  at  4.30  a.m.  on  the  morning  of 
October  3,  and,  mounting  our  ’rickshaws, 
departed  an  hour  later  for  the  landing- 
stage  on  the  river-bank.  We  were  accompanied  by 
Mr.  Nishikawa,  who  came  to  see  the  last  of  us,  and 
to  assist  us  in  procuring  our  tickets  and  so  on.  Book- 
ing through  to  Ping-yang,  we  were  herded  on  to  a 
small  launch  crowded  with  Japanese,  and  all  their 
baggage  also,  and,  leaving  the  shore  at  6 a.m.,  reached 
the  railway  jetty  on  the  Korean  side  of  the  Ya-lu 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  later.  We  there  had  all 
our  belongings  transported  by  a Korean  porter  to 
the  train  waiting  near  by,  and,  the  railway  being  a 
broad-gauge  one  (4  feet  8|  inches),  were  comfortably 
installed  in  corridor  carriages,  and  were  off  at  6.30  a.m. 

At  first  we  traversed  fertile  plains  set  in  the  midst 
of  rugged  hills;  considerable  areas  were  under  culti- 
vation, but  the  kaoliang,  so  universally  grown  in 
Manchuria,  is  but  little  favoured  in  Korea,  where 
the  staple  food  of  the  inhabitants  is  rice,  though 
beans,  millet,  and  Indian  corn  are  also  sown.  Many 
natives,  in  their  becoming  white  garments,  were  at 
work  in  the  fields,  but  the  country  villages  passed 
were  usually  of  a poor  type,  the  huts  being  con- 

180 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


structed  of  mud  walls  and  thatched  roofs,  with  a 
reed  fence  round  the  garden  of  each  habitation. 

During  the  journey  we  crossed  several  large 
streams,  over  some  of  which,  such  as  the  Chon- 
chon  and  Ta-tong,  the  Japanese  appeared  to  be  at 
work  on  the  construction  of  new  bridges.  We 
reached  Ping-yang  shortly  before  2 p.m.,  and,  as  we 
had  telegraphed  on  ahead  the  previous  day  for 
rooms,  were  met  at  the  station  by  a Japanese  boy 
from  the  Yanaglia  Hotel,  who  took  over  our  baggage, 
whilst  we  set  off  in  ’rickshaws  for  the  inn,  which  is 
some  little  distance  from  the  railway.  We  were 
very  comfortable  during  our  twenty-four  hours’ 
stay  there,  but  as  nobody  about  the  establishment 
knew  a word  of  English,  it  was  not  always  easy  to 
make  our  wishes  thoroughly  understood  now  that 
we  were  deprived  of  the  services  of  Mr.  Nishikawa. 
It  was  an  excellent  opportunity,  however,  for  us  to 
practise  the  Japanese  acquired  during  the  past  few 
weeks. 

After  tea  we  chartered  ’rickshaws,  and  proceeded 
on  a tour  of  inspection  to  the  city  near  by,  and  also 
to  call  on  Mr.  Noble,  the  missionary,  who,  together 
with  his  wife  and  family,  had  been  in  Ping-yang  for 
the  past  twelve  years.  We  were  fortunate  enough  to 
find  them  at  home,  and  Mr.  Noble  kindly  placed  at 
our  disposal  for  the  remainder  of  the  afternoon  one 
of  his  lay-teachers,  a Korean  who  could  speak  English 
and  Japanese  as  well  as  his  own  tongue.  With  him 
as  guide,  we  traversed  many  of  the  streets  of  the 
town,  which  is  a large  one  of  some  40,000  inhabitants, 

181 


KOREA 


but  possesses  few  buildings  of  any  pretensions  what- 
soever, beyond  the  mission  church  and  one  or  two 
others.  The  generality  of  the  buildings  are  small, 
with  roofs  of  thatch,  and  the  streets  are  for  the  most 
part  narrow  and  dirty.  At  this  hour  of  the  day 
they  were  thronged  with  people  of  both  sexes  and 
of  all  ages;  but  there  was  an  absence  of  the  hurry 
and  bustle  so  common  in  Chinese  streets,  and  the 
shopkeepers  seemed  indifferent  whether  their  wares 
exposed  for  sale  attracted  purchasers  or  not.  In 
Ping-yang  one  sees  the  Korean  chez-lui,  so  to  speak, 
and  there  is  little  evidence  of  foreign  dominion  in 
the  city  itself,  for  the  Japanese  largely  confine 
themselves  to  their  own  concession  outside  (in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  railway),  where  some  7,000  of 
them  have  settled  down,  and  comparatively  few  were 
noticed  wdthin  its  walls. 

Consequently  the  Korean  gentleman  is  seen  peram- 
bulating the  streets  at  his  best;  the  coolie  also  looms 
large,  laboriously  carrying  huge  weights  on  his  back 
supported  on  a frame  consisting  of  two  forked 
branches  fastened  together,  or  basking  in  idleness 
in  the  bright  sunshine;  whilst  groups  of  small  lads 
and  young  students  in  their  peaked  caps,  just  out 
from  school  and  homeward  bound,  are  met  at  every 
turn.  Nearly  every  woman,  from  the  age  of  about 
eighteen  and  upwards,  appears  to  be  a proud  mother, 
for  few  are  seen  as  they  walk  the  streets  that  have 
not  a baby  strapped  to  their  backs.  And  so  we 
threaded  our  way  through  this  dignified  and  easy- 
going throng  until  we  reached  the  fine  East  Gate  of 

182 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


the  city,  and,  passing  under  the  arch,  found  ourselves 
on  the  bank  of  the  Ta-tong  or  Tai-dan-gan  River. 
At  that  time  of  year  the  stream  was  about  100  yards 
wide,  its  surface  dotted  with  small  craft  being  rowed 
to  and  fro,  whilst  a bridge  of  boats  spanned  the 
river  from  bank  to  bank. 

General  Broadwood  had  left  a note  on  the  Jap- 
anese Resident  of  Ping-yang,  early  in  the  afternoon, 
asking  permission  to  visit  the  prisons  and  other 
places  of  interest  on  the  morrow;  just  as  we  had 
finished  dinner  the  Vice-Resident  was  announced, 
and,  though  his  knowledge  of  English  was  limited, 
we  understood  that  he  would  call  for  us  at  8 a.m. 
next  morning,  and  personally  conduct  us.  He  had 
barely  left  before  a newspaper-man  made  his  appear- 
ance, with  what  reason  it  was  not  quite  clear,  for 
he  could  scarcely  speak  English  at  all;  but  as  he 
seemed  anxious  to  have  our  cards,  we  graciously 
presented  these  to  him. 

As  the  Vice-Resident  had  not  arrived  at  the 
appointed  hour  next  morning,  we  ascended  a low 
hill  just  outside  the  hotel,  on  the  top  of  which 
we  saw  Japanese  exercising  horses,  and  from  there 
obtained  a good  view  of  their  barracks  on  the 
other  side.  Ping-yang  is  the  headquarters  of  two 
battalions,  which  were  distributed  throughout  the 
neighbouring  districts,  half  a battalion  being  located 
at  that  time  in  Ping-yang  itself.  The  barracks  are 
commodious  blocks  of  buildings,  two  stories  in 
height,  and  substantially  built  of  brick,  with  a fine 
parade-ground  in  front.  The  Vice-Resident  shortly 

183 


KOREA 


after  appeared  on  the  summit,  so  we  descended  the 
hill  together,  and  accompanied  him  to  the  Japanese 
prison  near  by. 

There  were  only  a few  prisoners  visible,  not  more 
than  half-a-dozen  or  so,  and  these  were  doing  odd 
jobs  about  the  prison-yard.  The  buildings  were 
clean,  well  ventilated,  and  airy.  An  enclosed  pas- 
sage ran  along  the  whole  length  of  the  front  of  the 
cells,  which  were  separated  from  it  by  alternate  iron 
bars  and  wooden  scantlings  the  full  height  of  the 
cells  from  floor  to  roof.  The  yard  is  surrounded  by 
plank  fencing  7 or  8 feet  in  height,  and  surmounted 
by  several  strands  of  barbed  wire. 

From  the  Japanese  prison  we  ’ricksha wed  to  the 
Korean  Governor’s  house,  and  were  met  on  arrival 
by  Mr.  Oki,  the  Japanese  Secretary,  who  showed  us 
to  his  offices,  situated  in  a Korean  building  of  con- 
siderable size  in  close  proximity  to  the  Korean  prison. 
These  large  houses  are  warmed  during  the  winter, 
which  is  very  severe,  much  on  the  same  principle 
as  the  Chinese  hangs,  though  the  method  is  more 
elaborate;  for  the  whole  floor  of  the  house  is  under- 
mined by  hot-air  chambers  passing  up  and  down  the 
room,  and  connected  with  large  pine-flres  lighted 
immediately  outside  the  exterior  wall.  After  some 
conversation  we  were  conducted  to  the  prison,  the 
newer  portion  of  which  is  built  on  the  same  lines  as 
that  of  the  Japanese,  except  that  all  the  uprights  in 
front  of  the  cells  consist  of  wooden  scantlings  some 
3 inches  square,  with  about  6 inches  intervals  between 
them.  Unlike  the  Japanese  prisoners,  however,  who 

184 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

are  provided  with  bedding  and  other  conveniences 
inside  each  compartment,  which  is  shared  by  only 
two  or  three  men,  the  Korean  criminals  were  herded 
together,  from  lack  of  accommodation,  to  the  number 
of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  in  a cell  perhaps  12  to 
14  feet  square.  Criminals  undergoing  various  terms 
of  imprisonments,  from  six  months  for  minor  offences 
to  others  doing  ten  and  fifteen  years  for  serious  ones, 
were,  for  the  same  reason,  all  mixed  up  together, 
seated  in  four  rows  on  the  floor  of  the  cells.  There 
were  four  such  cells  fully  occupied  by  men,  whilst 
another  contained  only  two  Koreans,  superiorly 
dressed,  and  evidently  men  of  some  position,  who 
had  been  condemned  to  ten  and  fifteen  years’  incar- 
ceration for  political  offences.  Beyond  this,  again,  in 
the  next  cell  were  some  fifteen  women  seated  in  two 
rows,  with  their  faces  towards  the  side  partitions. 
Most  of  these  unfortunate  creatures  were  murderers 
and  poisoners  condemned  to  long  terms  of  imprison- 
ment; and  though  the  majority  were  no  longer 
young,  and  showed  their  character  in  their  faces,  a 
few  appeared  to  be  little  over  twenty  years  of  age, 
and  were  quite  nice-looking. 

In  spite  of  the  somewhat  crowded  condition  of 
these  cells,  the  place  was  perfectly  sanitary,  fresh- 
smelling, and  well-ventilated,  a peculiar  disinfectant 
with  pleasant  pine  odour  pervading  the  whole  build- 
ing with  its  aroma.  Immediately  behind  this  new 
building  — constructed  since  the  Japanese  admin- 
istration — is  the  old  Korean  prison,  now  used  as 
cells  for  those  prisoners  who  have  given  trouble,  and 

185 


KOREA 


are  not  permitted  to  take  exercise  in  the  yard. 
These  cells  have  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
Japanese  in  many  respects,  and  made  sanitary  by 
providing  proper  ventilation  and  giving  more  light 
to  the  wretched  occupants;  but  they  are  far  from 
desirable  residences.  In  front  of  the  cells,  which 
face  the  open  courtyard,  a thick  mud-and-stone  wall 
is  built  up  to  a height  of  about  4 feet  above  ground- 
level,  and  into  this  are  secured  the  wooden  scantlings 
which  effectually  bar  all  means  of  escape,  as  they 
extend  up  to  the  eaves  of  the  low  roof,  which  descends 
to  little  more  than  3 feet  above  the  top  of  the  wall. 
There  were  two  such  cells,  both  long  and  narrow,  in 
one  of  which  were  confined  the  worst  criminals,  as 
though  imprisoned  in  a pit;  whilst  in  the  other  were 
forty-three  Koreans  awaiting  trial. 

After  we  had  completed  our  inspection  of  the 
prisons,  Mr.  Oki  kindly  undertook  to  conduct  us 
to  a high  eminence  to  the  north  of  the  town,  and 
within  the  old  walls,  from  whence  we  were  promised 
a fine  view  of  Ping-yang  and  the  surrounding  country; 
and  we  were  well  repaid  for  the  hot  walk  of  some- 
thing over  a mile  along  the  western  edge  of  the  wall 
to  reach  this  point.  On  a knoll  immediately  above 
the  Government  oflBces  the  Japanese  had  erected  a 
monument  to  those  of  their  countrymen  who  fell 
during  the  capture  of  Ping-yang  in  the  Chino- 
Japanese  War;  and  as  we  proceeded  along  the  wall 
we  were  shown  the  spot,  just  outside,  where  a skirmish 
had  taken  place  with  Russian  Cossacks  during  the 
last  war.  The  north-western  portion  of  the  city 

186 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


wall  runs  irregularly  up  the  hillsides,  is  still  in  a 
very  fair  state  of  preservation,  and  rises  some  15  to 
20  feet  above  the  level  of  the  slopes  outside.  Within 
the  walls  hereabouts  is  open  rolling  grass-land  which 
ascends  steadily  towards  the  peak  on  which  our 
footsteps  were  directed,  the  town  lying  to  the  south, 
in  the  valley  below,  on  the  river’s  bank.  Trees  are 
singularly  few  in  number,  but  outside  the  wall  the 
hill-slopes  to  the  west  are  clothed  in  magnificent 
old  pines  which  grow  there  in  great  profusion. 

On  reaching  the  old  Chinese  pavilion  at  the  sum- 
mit, we  found  it  held  other  visitors  besides  ourselves, 
chiefly  Japanese  men  and  women;  and  one  was  not 
surprised  to  find  that  the  view  from  this  point  proves 
an  attraction  to  the  dwellers  in  Ping-yang,  for  a 
glorious  panorama  of  the  valley  of  the  Tai-dan-gan 
is  stretched  before  one  looking  north  and  south, 
whilst  to  the  east  and  west  undulating  cultivated 
plains  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  mountain  ranges. 
A short  distance  across  a narrow  neck  to  the  north 
is  another  small  peak,  known  as  the  Peony  Mount, 
the  capture  of  which  by  the  Japanese  resulted  in 
entry  being  obtained  into  the  city.  This  was  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a gallant  dash  at  the  gate  in 
front  of  the  archway  through  the  wall  near  the  pavil- 
ion, which  was  carried  in  the  face  of  a heavy  fire. 
“Vladimir”  thus  describes  this  incident:  “As  soon 
as  Colonel  Sato  saw  that  Peony  Mount  had  been 
taken,  he  directed  his  efforts  against  the  Gemmu 
(Hyon-mu)  Gate,  the  nearest  on  that  side  of  the 
city.  The  Chinese  defended  the  walls  so  well,  and 

187 


KOREA 


kept  up  such  a brisk  fire,  that  the  Japanese  assault 
was  repulsed.  . . . Lieutenant  Mimura,  burning 
with  shame  at  the  repulse,  shouted  to  his  men,  ‘ Who 
will  come  with  me  to  open  that  gate.^’  and  at  once 
rushed  towards  the  Gemmu  Gate.  Harada,  one  of 
the  soldiers  of  Mimura,  then  said,  ‘ Who  will  be  first 
on  the  wall?’  and  flew  after  his  officer.  They  ran  so 
quickly  that  only  eleven  other  soldiers  were  able  to 
join  them  under  the  wall  after  passing  through  a rain 
of  lead.  Mimura  and  his  small  band  of  heroes  found 
the  gate  too  strong  to  be  forced,  so  the  lieutenant 
gave  the  order  to  scale  the  walls.  The  Chinese  were 
busy  firing  in  front,  keeping  the  Japanese  troops 
back,  and  never  imagined  that  a handful  of  men 
would  have  the  boldness  to  climb  the  wall  like 
monkeys  under  their  very  eyes.  Mimura  and  his 
men  came  upon  them  with  such  surprise  that  they 
were  scattered  in  an  instant.  The  Japanese  at  once 
jumped  down  inside  the  walls  and  rushed  the  gate, 
killing  three  of  its  defenders  and  dispersing  the  rest, 
Mimura  cutting  right  and  left  with  his  sword.” 
After  considerable  difficulty,  the  gate  was  unbolted, 
though  the  gallant  little  band  suffered  several  casual- 
ties from  the  Chinese  firing  into  them  from  behind 
before  they  could  admit  their  astonished  comrades, 
who  were  outside  the  w^alls.  The  entry  here  forced 
virtually  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Ping-yang. 

In  the  river-bed  immediately  below  this  high 
eminence  the  Japanese  were  constructing  the  head 
works  of  the  water-supply  to  be  distributed  in  the 
near  future  to  the  town.  The  river  water  is  highly 

188 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

contaminated,  and  the  cause  of  much  sickness  in 
Ping-yang,  so  the  Japanese,  with  their  usual  thor- 
oughness in  sanitary  matters,  have  set  to  work  to 
remedy  this  evil.  The  construction  of  the  settling- 
tanks  and  filter-beds,  and  erection  of  the  pumping- 
machinery,  were  in  an  advanced  state,  and  the 
filtered  water  was  to  be  pumped  up  to  a rising  main 
to  the  reservoir  near  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  thence 
carried  by  gravitation  through  a 20-inch  main  for 
distribution  throughout  the  town  below. 

On  reaching  the  foot  of  the  hill,  Mr.  Oki  bade  us 
good-bye,  and  returned  to  his  house  above  the  Gov- 
ernment offices,  whilst  the  Vice-Resident  accompa- 
nied us  back  through  the  town  to  our  hotel  in  our 
’rickshaws,  which  had  been  sent  round  to  meet  us 
at  this  point.  Having  completed  our  packing  and 
lunched,  we  left  by  the  2.2  p.m.  train  for  Seoul. 

Of  the  journey  to  Seoul  there  is  little  to  describe. 
As  one  proceeds  south  from  Ping-yang,  the  more 
open  plains  of  the  north  dwindle  away  in  size  to 
narrow  valleys  enclosed  by  hills  of  varying  height, 
the  country  being  extraordinarily  well  watered  by 
numerous  streams  which  are  crossed  by  the  railway. 
Over  many  of  the  larger  of  these  the  Japanese  were 
constructing  new  bridges  of  considerable  size.  Before 
half  the  journey  had  been  completed  darkness  fell 
over  the  scene,  so  the  landscape  became  obliterated, 
except  what  was  visible  under  the  pale  light  of  a 
comparatively  new  moon. 

We  arrived  at  the  Nondaimon  Station  shortly 
after  10  p.m.,  and  were  there  met  by  the  Astor  House 

189 


KOREA 


Hotel  courier  — a Korean  in  his  native  costume, 
who  spoke  English.  With  his  assistance,  we  obtained 
’rickshaws  (whilst  he  looked  after  our  heavy  luggage), 
and  drove  off  to  the  hotel,  a journey  of  some  twenty 
minutes,  over  rough,  broken  roads.  Rooms  had 
been  reserved  for  us,  and  we  were  soon  settled  down 
again  to  the  European  mode  of  living,  which  afiForded 
a pleasant  change  from  Japanese  after  five  consecutive 
nights’  experience  of  the  latter.  The  servants  were  all 
Korean  boys,  the  management  under  a European,  and 
inclusive  charges  little  more  than  we  had  lately  been 
paying  for  far  inferior  fare  and  accommodation. 

By  an  extraordinary  coincidence  a very  old  friend 
of  mine,  whom  I had  not  met  for  six  or  seven  years  — 
Major  Blair,  R.E.,  from  Tientsin  — was  spending 
his  honeymoon  travelling  in  Japan,  Korea,  and 
Manchuria,  and  he  and  his  wife  were  stopping  at 
the  Astor  House  at  the  time  of  our  arrival.  Shortly 
before  leaving  England  a mutual  friend  had  observed 
to  me  that  he  would  not  be  surprised  if  I ran 
across  the  Blairs  somewhere  in  Japan,  and  though 
the  probability  of  doing  so  had  appeared  extremely 
remote,  the  seemingly  unlikely  had  actually  occurred, 
except  that  the  meeting-place  was  to  be  in  Korea 
instead  of  Japan.  It  was  only  quite  an  afterthought 
that  had  induced  them  to  visit  Korea  from  Japan, 
and  as  they  were  leaving  for  Mukden  the  second  day 
after  our  arrival  it  certainly  w^as  a most  remarkable 
circumstance  that,  quite  unknown  to  each  other,  we 
should  have  reached  Seoul  very  nearly  at  the  same 
time. 


190 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

After  breakfast  next  morning  we  took  ’rickshaws 
and  drove  to  the  Daiichi  Bank,  in  the  Japanese 
quarter  of  the  town,  entering  the  city  walls,  which 
are  lofty  and  castellated,  by  the  West  Gate,  close 
behind  the  hotel.  An  electric  car  line  also  passes 
through  this  gate  and  runs  to  the  East  Gate  along 
the  main  street  of  the  town  on  raised  rails,  which  do 
not  add  to  the  comfort  of  the  traveller  by  ’rickshaw, 
for  the  roads  are  so  bad  that  the  coolie,  in  his 
anxiety  to  take  advantage  of  good  portions,  con- 
stantly crosses  and  recrosses  the  line  by  a series  of 
short  sharp  twists  and  violent  bumps  over  the  rails. 
Fortunately,  shortly  after  entering  the  gate,  we 
dived  down  a side-road,  and  were  conveyed  through 
a maze  of  narrow  streets  to  our  objective.  Having 
supplied  ourselves  with  the  sinews  of  war,  we  next 
called  on  the  British  Acting  Consul-General,  Mr. 
Lay,  who  occupied  a fine  official  residence  set  in 
a charming  garden  on  high  ground.  We  were  able 
to  obtain  from  here  a comprehensive  view  of  the 
town  and  the  surrounding  chain  of  hills,  which 
almost  completely  encircle  it. 

Mr.  and  Mrs.  Lay  kindly  asked  us  all  to  lunch, 
and  we  spent  a very  enjoyable  hour  or  two  with 
them  in  the  early  afternoon.  We  were  not  a little 
surprised  to  hear  that  there  was  quite  a large  com- 
munity of  Europeans  in  Seoul,  and  that  Mrs.  Lay’s 
social  duties  required  her  to  call  on  some  sixty  ladies 
of  different  nationalities.  Their  experiences  at  the 
time  of  the  affair  at  Chemulpo,  when  the  Japanese 
squadron  ordered  the  Russian  gunboats,  which  had 

191 


KOREA 


taken  shelter  there  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  to 
come  out  of  the  harbour,  were  most  interesting,  for 
they  were  actually  able  to  see  the  fight,  which  took 
place  some  seven  or  eight  miles  out  to  sea,  from  the 
Consulate,  the  doors  and  windows  of  which  were 
shaken  severely  by  the  thunder  of  the  guns. 

Later  in  the  afternoon  Captain  Heathcote  and  I 
tramped  the  whole  length  of  the  town  from  west  to 
east  along  the  car  line  — a distance  of  some  two 
and  a half  miles  from  gate  to  gate.  The  road  we 
followed  was  generally  a fine,  broad,  open  one,  but 
appeared  to  be  more  on  the  outskirts  than  in  the 
busy  part,  such  as  we  had  traversed  in  the  morning. 
The  shops  were  small,  and,  as  a rule,  uninteresting, 
whilst  buildings  of  any  size  were  singularly  few,  the 
most  imposing  being  a large  red-brick  structure 
under  construction,  destined  to  be  the  Young  Men’s 
Christian  Association.  The  East  Gate  of  the  city 
is  surmounted  by  the  usual  two-storied  structure  of 
graceful  design,  and  highly  ornamented,  and  this  we 
ascended  to  get  a view,  but  saw  little.  Subsequently 
we  climbed  up  the  hillside  in  a northerly  direction 
along  the  top  of  the  wall,  a massive  erection  in  stone, 
10  to  12  feet  wide  at  the  summit  in  places,  and  loop- 
holed  at  a height  of  about  20  feet  above  the  ground 
outside.  This  wall  ran  round  the  entire  city,  over 
hill  and  dale,  in  irregular  lines,  and  from  one  of  the 
highest  points  reached  by  us  we  obtained  an  excel- 
lent bird’s-eye  impression  of  the  city  lying  below  us. 
In  actual  extent  it  considerably  exceeds  Mukden, 
but  is  not  so  closely  packed  with  houses,  for  in 

192 


EXTEHIOK  OF  HE(’EPTION  ROOM,  QUEEN  S APARTMENTS 

EAST  PALACE,  SEOI'L 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


the  south-west  corner  there  were  large  open  spaces, 
apparently  used  as  recreation  grounds,  and  numerous 
patches  of  vivid  green  indicated  plots  of  cultivated 
land,  whilst  dark  belts  of  pines  and  other  trees  on 
the  slopes  of  lesser  hill-features  were  also  visible. 
The  area  enclosed  by  the  walls  cannot  be  far  short 
of  some  five  square  miles,  and  within  their  shelter 
some  200,000  Koreans  dwell,  the  Japanese  community 
being  estimated  at  about  30,000  souls. 

In  the  evening  I dined  at  the  hotel  with  Major 
and  Mrs.  Blair,  who  were  entertaining  General 
Akashi,  a former  friend,  and  Commandant  of  the 
Korean  Gendarmerie,  who  spoke  French  fluently 
with  Mrs.  Blair  and  English  with  her  husband  and 
me.  This  was,  unfortunately,  our  only  day  together, 
for  the  Blairs  were  leaving  early  next  morning  bound 
for  Mukden.  I pointed  out  to  Mrs.  Blair  that  she 
would  find  accommodation  on  ahead  somewhat 
more  primitive  than  in  Seoul  and  Japan;  but  she 
regarded  these  matters  as  mere  trifles,  and  was 
keenly  looking  forward  to  the  experiences  before  her. 
Together  with  her  husband,  she  had  apparently 
made  a close  study  of  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  and 
was  already  quite  familiar  with  the  operations,  the 
scenes  of  which  she  was  eager  to  view. 

Following  General  Broadwood’s  usual  practice, 
we  set  out  next  morning  to  call  on  the  Acting  Jap- 
anese Resident-General,  Viscount  Sone,  Prince  Ito 
being  on  leave  in  Japan.  It  was  showery  when  we 
started,  and  the  Koreans  had  donned  their  curious 
conical-shaped  oil-skin  covers  over  their  tall  hats  to 

193 


KOREA 


keep  the  rain  off  their  heads.  The  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment offices  are  situated  in  a fine  new  building, 
lately  erected  on  the  slopes  of  Nan  San,  at  some 
considerable  height  above  the  level  and  to  the  south 
of  the  town.  We  were  introduced  to  the  Resident- 
General  (a  handsome  man  with  grizzled  hair  and 
moustache)  by  the  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
who  spoke  English  fluently,  and  acted  as  interpreter 
during  the  interview,  as  His  Excellency  did  not 
speak  our  tongue.  It  was  arranged  that  in  the 
course  of  the  next  day  or  two  we  should  have  an 
opportunity  of  inspecting  some  of  the  local  schools. 

We  next  called  on  Major-General  Moratta,  the 
Chief  of  the  Staff  on  military  matters  to  the  Resident- 
General,  whose  house  was  close  by.  He  speaks 
French  fluently,  having  formerly  spent  some  years 
in  France,  and  he  had  also  been  present  in  London 
on  the  occasion  of  Queen  Victoria’s  Diamond  Jubilee. 
General  Moratta  is  an  excellent  conversationist, 
and  told  us  a great  deal  about  various  tours  he 
had  made  throughout  Korea,  and  discussed  many 
other  interesting  subjects  as  well,  so  our  stay  with 
him  was  one  of  considerable  duration.  It  had  been 
General  Broadwood’s  intention  to  call  also  on  Gen- 
eral Ilasegawa,  commanding  the  Japanese  troops  in 
Korea,  but  as  the  General  was  engaged  on  committees 
that  morning,  our  visit  had  to  be  deferred  until  the 
next  day,  and  we  returned  to  the  hotel. 

In  order  to  see  something  of  the  environments  of 
Seoul,  we  set  out  on  foot  in  the  afternoon  for  a tramp 
of  about  nine  miles,  visiting  the  White  Buddha,  one 

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LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

of  the  few  curiosities  of  which  Seoul  can  boast. 
Leaving  the  hotel,  we  struck  north  along  the  Pekin 
road,  passing  the  large  arch  erected  shortly  after 
the  Chino-Japanese  War  by  the  Koreans,  as  a thanks- 
giving for  the  recognition  of  their  independence. 
Continuing  up  the  hillside  the  road  runs  through  a 
deep  rock  cutting,  known  as  the  Pekin  Pass,  beyond 
which  we  dropped  into  a narrow  plain  through  fields 
of  cotton  and  chillies,  the  beautiful  large  red  pods  of 
which  were  being  dried  in  great  quantities  on  the 
thatched  roofs  of  the  huts,  and  gave  a vivid  splash 
of  colour  to  otherwise  bare  surroundings.  Leaving 
the  Pekin  road,  we  turned  off  east  up  a sandy  nullah- 
bed  leading  to  the  site  of  the  White  Buddha  in  a 
rocky  granite  gorge  in  the  heart  of  the  low  hills. 
The  figure,  which  is  some  8 to  10  feet  in  height,  in 
a sitting  posture,  is  cut  in  relief  on  the  face  of  a rock 
situated  in  the  bed  of  the  stream,  the  whole  being 
whitewashed  except  for  the  colouring  of  the  neck- 
lace, mouth,  nose,  eyes,  and  eyebrows,  and  protected 
by  a small  Chinese  pavilion  of  the  usual  type  erected 
over  the  rock.  Near  by,  and  higher  up  the  side  of 
the  ravine,  are  a small  shrine  and  temple,  with 
quarters  for  the  few  priests  who  dwell  here. 

Leaving  the  Buddha,  we  proceeded  farther  up 
the  gorge  until  we  reached  the  point  where  the  outer 
city  wall,  running  over  ridge  and  valley,  crosses  the 
stream  by  a bridge  of  several  arches,  and  continues 
up  the  opposite  hill-slopes.  Passing  through  the 
gateway  at  the  bridge,  we  turned  up  a pretty  little 
wooded  valley,  in  which  were  a few  scattered  huts, 

195 


KOREA 


leading  to  the  summit  of  the  ridge,  and  there  again 
entered  within  the  precincts  of  the  city  wall  by 
means  of  another  gateway.  From  thence  we  rap- 
idly descended  into  the  arena  below,  in  which  the 
town  proper  is  situated,  and  winding  our  way 
through  a labyrinth  of  narrow  streets,  made  for  the 
Pagoda  Gardens,  so-called  by  reason  of  a small, 
finely  carved  white  marble  pagoda,  some  25  to  30 
feet  in  height,  which  is  situated  in  the  grounds. 
These  public  gardens,  though  small,  are  well  laid  out 
with  flower-beds,  pathways,  and  shelters,  and  a 
covered  bandstand  with  curious  sounding-box  roof 
at  once  catches  the  eye  on  entering;  in  another 
corner  is  a marble  pillar  supported  on  the  back  of  a 
huge  tortoise  carved  out  of  a block  of  granite. 

Desirous  of  seeing  Korean  life  in  all  its  different 
aspects,  we  paid  a visit  after  dinner  to  the  Theatre 
Royal,  close  by,  and  derived  no  little  entertainment 
from  watching  several  acts  of  a Korean  play,  per- 
formed mainly  by  men  and  boys.  The  building  in 
which  it  took  place  was  one  of  some  size,  the  seats 
in  the  body  of  the  hall  being  raised  in  steps  until 
they  reached  the  level  of  the  gallery  or  promenade, 
on  which  we  had  our  seats  in  a private  box  on  the 
right-hand  side.  There  were  four  or  five  boxes  on 
each  side  of  the  hall;  those  on  the  left,  reserved  for 
Korean  ladies,  being  all  full.  Not  understanding 
a word  of  the  language,  we  were,  of  course,  unable 
to  fathom  the  plot  — if  there  was  one  at  all  — though 
a gigantic  paper  or  cardboard  pumpkin,  which  was 
repeatedly  being  cut,  seemed  to  be  the  chief  cause 

196 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

of  interest  in  this  highly  sensational  drama.  Most  of 
the  dialogue  was  ehanted  to  the  accompaniment  of 
a drum  played  by  a man  on  the  stage,  and  from  time 
to  time  supers  strolled  across  the  scene  as  though 
they  regarded  themselves  as  invisible  for  theatrical 
purposes.  The  music  was  by  no  means  discordant, 
and  the  high  falsetto  voice  so  commonly  heard  in 
India  appeared  to  be  considered  worthy  of  commen- 
dation in  Korea,  as  applause  occasionally  broke  out 
when  a peculiarly  high  note  had  been  successfully 
grappled  with.  At  the  end  of  each  scene  a red-and- 
white  curtain,  running  along  a wire,  was  pulled 
across  the  stage  from  one  side,  and  a member  of  the 
company  would  come  before  the  footlights  and  hold 
forth  to  the  audience,  whom  he  was  apparently 
informing  what  might  be  expected  in  the  scene 
about  to  follow. 

So  the  play  dragged  on  until  about  10.30  p.m., 
when  the  curtain  was  drawn  aside  to  reveal  the 
entry  of  twelve  geisang,  or  dancing-girls,  prettily 
arrayed  in  green  and  red,  with  long,  loose  silk  cuffs 
— I suppose  one  would  call  them  — depending  from 
the  wrists,  and  hanging  far  below  the  tips  of  their 
fingers.  Most  of  these  girls  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  entertainment  had  been  mixing  freely  with 
the  young  Korean  bloods  of  the  balcony,  who,  like 
ourselves,  were  occupying  the  most  expensive  seats 
in  the  house  — price  one  yen,  or  approximately  two 
shillings.  They  were  pretty  little  creatures  in  a 
dainty  kind  of  way,  with  hair  neatly  done  up  on  the 
top  with  a flower  placed  in  at  one  side,  somewhat  after 

197 


KOREA 


the  fashion  of  Burmese  girls.  During  the  last  act 
of  the  play  they  had  all  disappeared  to  adorn  them- 
selves in  the  garb  in  which  they  now  appeared 
before  us.  They  made  their  entry  in  two  rows  of 
six,  one  behind  the  other,  and  after  a few  prelimi- 
nary movements  en  masse  fell  into  two  rows  again, 
Indian  file,  at  the  back  of  the  stage.  In  the  centre 
was  a large  cloth  screen  supported  on  a high  wooden 
frame,  end-on  to  the  audience,  and  to  opposite 
sides  of  this  one  girl  from  each  group  advanced, 
and  there  danced  in  perfect  unison  with  the  other, 
though  apparently  unseen  by  her.  The  remainder 
retained  their  positions,  watching  the  graceful 
movements  of  the  two  performing,  who,  judged 
by  their  actions,  appeared  to  be  simultaneously 
going  through  the  ordeal  of  doing  their  hair  and 
other  toilet  difficulties  before  each  side  of  the 
screen,  as  though  it  were  a mirror.  When  they 
had  finished,  they  each  threw  a wooden  ball  at 
an  orifice  at  the  top  of  the  screen,  and  if  it  success- 
fully passed  through  they  helped  themselves  to  a 
flower  from  two  large  bowls  on  tall  pedestals  at 
each  side  of  the  stage  near  the  footlights.  Should 
a girl  fail  in  her  shot,  she  resumed  her  place  at  the 
back  of  her  row  without  a flower.  Then  the  next 
pair  of  girls  would  advance  and  go  through  the  same 
evolutions,  and  so  on  until  they  had  all  done  their 
turn  to  the  accompaniment  of  an  orchestra  consist- 
ing of  several  reed  instruments  and  drums  played  by 
men  ranged  up  along  one  side  of  the  stage.  We 
watched  three  sets  of  girls  go  through  the  dance, 

198 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


and  as  it  was  then  close  on  11  p.m.,  we  concluded  it 
was  time  to  go  to  bed,  and  returned  to  the  hotel. 

We  called  on  General  Hasegawa  at  his  private 
residence  next  morning,  and  were  there  met  by  Mr. 
Secretary  Kuroda,  who  acted  as  interpreter  during 
the  interview,  as  he  spoke  French  fluently  — in 
fact,  in  vivacity,  gesture,  and  general  appearance 
he  is  far  more  like  a Frenchman  than  a Japanese, 
and  he  speaks  English  well  also.  General  Hasegawa 
is  a fine  soldierly-looking  man,  with  strong,  deter- 
mined face,  and  is  less  like  the  usual  stamp  of 
Japanese  in  feature  than  European.  He  ordered 
champagne  to  be  handed  round,  drank  our  healths, 
and  arranged  that  Mr.  Kuroda  should  show  us  the 
Korean  barracks  and  troops  in  the  afternoon. 

Accordingly,  after  lunch,  w'e  drove  in  ’rickshaws  to 
the  barracks,  close  to  the  North  Palace,  were  received 
by  Mr.  Kuroda,  and  introduced  to  the  Korean  Vice- 
Minister  of  Military  Affairs  and  Major-General  Ai, 
a tall,  slight  young  man,  who  had  received  his  mili- 
tary education  in  Japan,  and  is  the  proud  Com.m.ander 
of  the  Korean  army,  numbering  about  500  men.  The 
former  army,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  disbanded 
in  July,  1907,  since  when  one  battalion  has  been 
raised  under  Japanese  supervision,  its  chief  duty 
being  to  act  as  the  Emperor’s  bodyguard.  These 
troops  are  being  trained  mainly  by  Japanese  ofl".cers, 
of  whom  there  were  a good  many  present  on  the 
parade-ground,  as  well  as  Korean  officers,  whose  uni- 
form is  precisely  similar,  except  that  their  badges 
of  rank  are  worn  on  the  sleeve,  and  not  on  the 

199 


KOREA 


shoulder  as  in  the  case  of  the  Japanese.  Only  one 
company  was  drawn  up  on  parade,  as  the  remainder 
of  the  army  were  in  attendance  on  the  Emperor,  who 
was  visiting  his  father.  It  went  through  the  manual 
exercise  for  our  benefit  with  commendable  smart- 
ness under  command  of  one  of  its  Korean  officers, 
and  performed  various  evolutions  on  the  parade- 
ground  with  precision. 

It  is  not  easy  for  a foreigner  to  distinguish  the 
difference  between  a Korean  and  Japanese  when 
both  are  dressed  in  uniform,  beyond  the  fact  that,  as 
a rule,  the  former  is  usually  of  slighter  build  and 
taller  than  the  latter.  The  troops  drawm  up  for 
General  Broadwood’s  inspection  had  not  yet  received 
their  khaki  uniform,  with  which  they  were  to  be 
provided  in  the  near  future;  they  were  wearing 
out  their  old  kit,  which  consisted  of  blue  with  red 
facings,  white  canvas  gaiters,  with  knapsack,  accou- 
trements, rifle,  and  peaked  cap  with  red  band, 
exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the  Japanese  troops. 
The  men  are  reported  to  be  intelligent  and  very 
quick  in  learning  their  drill;  but,  in  their  character- 
istic fashion,  are  seemingly  equally  prompt  in  for- 
getting, through  indifference,  wffiat  they  have  learnt. 

After  inspecting  the  company  drawn  up  in  line. 
General  Broadwood  went  round  their  barrack- 
rooms,  in  each  of  wffiich  some  thirty  men  are  accom- 
modated. They  sleep  on  raised  w^ooden  platforms 
running  the  whole  length  of  the  rooms,  their  W'ooden 
kit-boxes  being  placed  underneath.  The  men’s  quar- 
ters extended  round  practically  three  sides  of  the 

200 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


barrack-square,  the  west  end  being  reserved  for  the 
army  offices  and  so  on.  So  far  as  one  could  gather, 
the  men  at  present  are  not  enlisted  for  any  definite 
period,  nor  have  they  any  choice  whether  they  wish 
to  join  the  army  or  not. 

From  the  barracks  we  went  on  to  the  North  Palace, 
which  is  open  to  visitors  on  Wednesdays  and  Sun- 
days on  payment  of  a small  entrance-fee  of  ten  sen  — 
about  five  cents.  The  buildings  are  arranged  much 
on  the  same  principle  as  those  seen  in  the  palace  at 
Mukden,  in  a sequence  of  courtyards  leading  from 
one  to  the  other;  but  the  colouring,  particularly  of 
their  roofs,  is  less  striking,  for  only  tiles  of  a dark 
hue  are  used,  in  place  of  the  yellow  and  green  ones 
of  the  Manchu  capital.  The  King’s  Audience  Cham- 
ber is  an  imposing  structure,  the  high  roof  being 
supported  on  lofty  wooden  pillars  some  3 feet  in 
diameter  and  painted  vermilion.  The  interior  is 
most  tastefully  painted  in  red,  green,  pink,  blue, 
and  white  tints,  and  the  carvings  and  ornamenta- 
tions generally  are  charming.  The  roof  cannot  be 
less  than  50  feet  above  the  floor-level,  and  the  centre 
is  richly  decorated  with  a gorgeous  design  of  two 
gold-and-red  dragons  within  a circle,  while  the 
ceiling  of  the  lower  roof,  immediately  over  the  raised 
dais  on  which  the  Emperor’s  throne  is  placed,  is 
similarly  treated.  The  whole  of  the  interior  forms 
as  picturesque  a specimen  of  decorative  wood-work 
as  one  can  well  imagine,  and  the  dimensions  of  the 
chamber  are  of  noble  proportions. 

The  late  Queen’s  apartments  in  the  courtyards  in 

201 


KOREA 


rear  are  still  closed  to  the  public;  but  we  were  able 
to  inspect  their  exterior,  and  were  pointed  out  the 
chamber  in  which  she  was  brutally  murdered  on 
October  8,  1895.  Many  other  buildings  of  imposing 
design  exist  within  the  precincts  of  the  palace  walls, 
all  of  which  are  now  unoccupied,  as  the  present 
Emperor  lives  in  another  palace  in  the  heart  of  the 
city;  but  that  which  perhaps  appeals  to  one  more 
than  any  other  is  the  summer-house.  This  is  set 
in  the  midst  of  an  artificial  lake  enclosed  within 
masonry  walls,  the  surface  of  the  water  being  cov- 
ered with  a thick  growth  of  lotus-leaves.  These 
plants  flower  in  July  and  August,  and  we  did  not  see 
them  at  their  best;  but  as  it  was,  the  surroundings 
were  exquisite.  The  building  is  founded  on  an 
island  of  stone,  some  50  yards  square,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  shore  by  three  delicate  stone  bridges 
30  to  40  feet  in  length,  and  is  carried  on  forty-eight 
granite  pillars,  some  15  feet  in  height.  They  thus 
form  a charming  colonnade  about  115  feet  in  length 
and  100  feet  broad,  the  under  portion  of  the  floor  of 
the  building  above  being  completely  covered  with 
coloured  designs  of  lotus-flowers.  Access  from  ground- 
level  to  the  apartments  is  obtained  by  a stairway 
near  the  bridges,  and  the  residence  is  surmounted 
by  a lofty  roof  of  the  usual  pattern  in  China  and 
Korea,  with  turned-up  eaves  at  the  corners.  Round 
the  lake  shore  the  banks  are  planted  with  willow 
and  other  trees,  the  whole  constituting  an  ideal 
abode  for  the  hot  summer  months. 

We  had  been  asked  by  Mr,  Kuroda  to  tea  at  his 

202 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

house  after  we  had  seen  over  the  palace,  but  had 
first  to  return  to  the  hotel,  as  General  Moratta  had 
promised  to  call  on  General  Broadwood.  He  was 
so  long  with  us  that  it  was  5 p.m.  before  we  were 
able  to  leave  the  hotel,  and,  as  we  had  half-an-hour’s 
’rickshaw  ride  before  us,  the  sun  was  practically 
setting  before  we  reached  Mr.  Kuroda’s  residence. 
On  arrival,  we  were  conducted  by  one  of  the  servants 
along  a path  leading  from  the  house  up  a delightful 
fir-clad  glen,  which  ran  through  the  pretty,  well- 
laid-out  grounds  to  a summer-house  high  up  on  the 
slope  of  Nan  San,  where  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Kuroda  were 
entertaining  about  a dozen  Japanese  ladies  to  tea. 
We  were  introduced  to  Mrs.  Kuroda,  who  speaks 
English  perfectly,  without  any  trace  of  foreign  accent, 
and  were  then  presented  by  her  to  the  other  Japanese 
ladies  before  sitting  down  to  join  them.  But  it  was 
already  so  late  that,  unfortunately,  they  had  fin- 
ished before  we  arrived,  and  very  shortly  took  their 
departure.  We  remained  for  some  time  midst  our 
pleasant  surroundings,  and  as  the  moon  began  to 
rise  followed  our  hosts  back  to  their  house,  where 
we  were  shown  some  extremely  choice  porcelain  that 
Mr.  Kuroda  had  collected  in  Seoul  during  the  past 
two  years.  Some  of  the  pieces  were  over  700  years 
old  and  of  great  value,  Mr.  Kuroda  being  a noted 
connoisseur.  He  had  whole  glass  cases  full  of  his 
purchases,  but,  as  it  was  getting  late,  we  had  to 
satisfy  ourselves  with  a very  cursory  inspection  of 
his  treasures.  The  Koreans  of  the  present  day  have 
apparently  quite  lost  the  art  of  making  china,  an 

203 


KOREA 

art  in  which,  some  hundreds  of  years  ago,  they 
greatly  excelled. 

The  evening’s  programme  was  kindly  provided 
by  General  Broadwood,  by  which  we  were  enabled 
to  see  another  phase  of  Korean  life  — dining  Korean 
fashion  at  a tea-house  near  the  North  Palace.  The 
instructions  previously  conveyed  to  the  manager  of 
the  establishment  by  an  interpreter  were  to  the 
effect  that  the  meal  was  to  consist  entirely  of  Korean 
dishes,  was  to  be  served  in  Korean  manner,  and 
the  entertainment  was  to  be  conducted  entirely  on 
Korean  lines.  At  the  appointed  hour  for  the  feast 
we  set  out  in  ’rickshaws  with  the  interpreter,  and  on 
arrival  at  the  tea-house  removed  our  boots,  and, 
provided  with  slippers,  were  shown  into  a large 
room  on  the  ground  floor,  where  we  smoked  cigar- 
ettes as  we  squatted  on  cushions  pending  the 
announcement  of  dinner.  We  then  made  a move  to 
the  room  upstairs,  where  the  meal  was  spread  in 
bowls  on  a table,  round  which  we  sat.  Numerous 
and  varied  were  the  dishes  by  which  we  were  con- 
fronted, and  all  were  cold  except  the  opening  soup, 
which  was  brought  in  steaming  hot  by  one  of  the 
servants,  followed  by  four  young  gcisang  — dainty 
little  ladies  who  were  to  wait  on  us.  They  appeared 
overcome  with  bashfulness  at  the  prospect  of  the 
ordeal  of  attending  on  foreigners  at  first,  and  to  the 
uninitiated  it  seemed  as  though  they  were  observing 
no  particular  method  in  the  order  in  which  we  were 
being  served  with  the  different  viands.  As  the  meal 
progressed,  however,  they  began  to  thaw  a bit,  and 

204 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 


when  they  had  poured  out  the  first  cup  of  sake  for 
each  of  us,  they  broke  out,  without  warning,  into  a 
soft-toned  chant,  abounding  with  low  trills.  This, 
we  were  told,  contained  words  expressing  their  wish 
for  our  future  health  and  happiness;  and  similar 
outbursts  of  song  were  indulged  in  at  intervals 
throughout  the  repast. 

After  dinner  an  adjournment  was  made  to  the 
lower  chamber,  where  we  distributed  ourselves  on 
cushions,  whilst  the  geisang  at  the  far  end  of  the 
room  proceeded  to  array  themselves  in  their  dancing 
costumes,  attaching  head-dresses  and  other  garments 
over  their  existing  ones.  They  then  danced  two  at 
a time  with  considerable  energy  and  abandon,  twist- 
ing and  turning  about  with  most  graceful  movements 
to  the  accompaniment  of  a drum  or  two  and  several 
reed  instruments  played  by  men  seated  at  the  back  of 
the  room.  We  were  treated  to  this  pleasing  spectacle 
for  half-an-hour  or  so,  when  the  performers,  appear- 
ing somewhat  exhausted,  were  regaled  on  beer  after 
their  exertions.  This  brought  the  entertainment 
to  a close,  and  the  young  ladies  departed  in  ’rick- 
shaws for  the  theatre,  where  doubtless  they  had 
pressing  engagements  to  keep  with  certain  Korean 
gilded  youths. 

The  next  morning  was  spent  visiting  various 
Korean  schools,  and  we  found  that  the  systems 
were  much  the  same  as  those  obtaining  in  Mukden, 
having  been  introduced  from  Japan.  We  were 
shown  round  by  a Korean  official  and  a Japanese 
interpreter,  and  were  first  taken  to  the  Normal 

205 


KOREA 


School,  located  in  a fine  new  double-storied  build- 
ing, and  attached  to  which  was  the  Government 
Primary  School. 

The  students  of  the  Normal  School  (of  whom  there 
were  about  112,  studying  to  become  teachers)  varied 
in  age  from  seventeen  to  twenty-five,  and  are  all 
boarders.  Entrance  to  this  academy  is  obtained  by 
examination,  candidates  coming  up  from  the  prov- 
inces as  well  as  the  capital.  The  students  are  all 
dressed  in  a light  grey  uniform,  the  coats  buttoning 
high  up  round  the  neck,  and  receive  their  instruc- 
tion in  large  airy  class-rooms.  They  are  provided 
with  excellent  model-rooms  and  small  museums  con- 
taining stuffed  birds,  insects,  moths,  butterflies,  and 
so  on,  whilst  the  laboratories  are  well  supplied  with 
modern  chemical  and  electrical  appliances.  Their 
dormitories  — eight  or  ten  students  are  accommo- 
dated in  each  — lavatory,  bath-room,  and  dining- 
room were  all  scrupulously  clean  and  fresh,  and 
are  heated  during  the  winter  months  on  the  kang 
principle.  Recreation  is  obtained  in  the  adjoining 
playground,  which  is  fitted  up  as  an  open-air 
gymnasium. 

Practically  within  the  same  grounds  is  the  Primary 
School,  for  boys  from  eight  to  seventeen  years  of  age, 
all  of  whom  are  day-boys.  There  were  some  190 
of  these  youths,  mostly  bright,  cheery  little  fellows 
with  intelligent  faces,  and  often  exceedingly  good- 
looking.  They  are  taught  the  more  elementary 
branches  of  education,  such  as  geography,  arithme- 
tic (using  our  figures),  Japanese,  and  the  Chinese 

206 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

classics  in  Korean,  etc.,  as  a grounding  for  the  High 
School,  which  we  next  visited. 

This  school  was  opened  in  1900,  and  contains 
about  170  pupils,  who  enter  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
or  fifteen,  and  pursue  a four  years’  course  to  fit 
them  to  be  educated  Korean  gentlemen  and  officers. 
The  education  here  also  is  entirely  free,  the  cost 
being  borne  by  the  State,  and  amongst  the  scholars 
are  sons  of  Korean  nobles  as  well  as  those  of  the 
middle  classes.  We  found  some  of  the  smaller  boys 
studying  chemistry  in  one  class-room,  more  advanced 
pupils  struggling  with  economics  in  another,  whilst 
in  other  rooms  geography  and  Chinese  classics  were 
being  taught  in  a Korean  sing-song  manner. 

From  the  High  School  we  proceeded  to  the  Lan- 
guage School,  which  was  evidently  a popular  insti- 
tution, for  here  some  580  pupils  were  studying 
various  foreign  languages,  of  which  Japanese  w^as 
first  favourite  with  338  students,  after  which  came 
English  with  139.  Then  followed  Chinese  with  61, 
German  with  24,  and  French  with  13.  English  is 
taught  by  an  English  master,  assisted  by  Korean 
teachers,  and  German  and  French  lessons  are  also 
conducted  by  masters  of  those  two  nationalities. 
W’e  heard  the  English,  German,  and  French  pupils 
put  through  their  paces  by  their  respective  instruct- 
ors — reading  aloud,  being  questioned,  and  answer- 
ing in  their  particular  language,  and  so  on  — and 
were  most  favourably  impressed  by  the  pronuncia- 
tion and  knowledge  of  the  more  advanced  students. 
W’e  also  watched  youngsters  who  had  been  learn- 

207 


KOREA 


ing  English  less  than  a year,  writing  most  clearly 
from  dictation,  and  their  spelling  of  the  easy  sen- 
tences read  out-  to  them  was  in  most  cases  fault- 
less. Altogether  the  methods  in  force  appear  to  be 
eminently  practical,  judging  from  the  satisfactory 
results  obtained.  But  then  the  Korean  boy  is 
acknowledged  to  be  very  quick  and  intelligent  in 
the  direction  of  acquiring  foreign  tongues,  for  which 
he  possesses  a peculiar  aptitude. 

One  could  not  help  being  struck  also  with  their 
almost  total  absence  of  shyness  or  self-conscious- 
ness in  the  presence  of  foreigners,  such  as  we  were. 
There  were  no  signs  of  diffidence  when  they  were 
asked  questions  before  us,  and  were  expected  to 
come  out  sharp  with  their  replies,  and  their  whole 
demeanour  was  natural  and  unaffected.  The  boys 
receive  also  a general  education  through  the  medium 
of  the  particular  language  they  may  have  elected  to 
study,  so  they  obtain  a pretty  thorough  instruction 
in  foreign  tongues. 

The  schools  we  had  up  to  this  point  visited  were 
those  at  which  a free  education  was  provided  at  the 
expense  of  the  State,  and  we  were  now  conducted 
to  one  the  cost  of  which  was  borne  by  a private 
nobleman,  the  patron  of  the  establishment.  Here 
there  were  some  260  scholars,  partly  boarders  and 
partly  day-boys,  varying  in  age  from  eight  to  eigh- 
teen, who  receive  much  the  same  education  as  that 
provided  at  the  Government  High  School.  Admis- 
sion is  obtained  by  graduates  from  the  Primary 
School  or  by  an  entrance  examination.  The  boys 

208 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

had,  unfortunately,  finished  their  studies  for  the 
morning  at  the  time  of  our  arrival,  so  we  were  unable 
to  see  them  in  class,  but  were  led  to  understand  that, 
besides  a general  education,  one  foreign  language 
also  was  taught,  three-quarters  of  the  boys  selecting 
Japanese  and  the  other  quarter  English.  The  happy- 
looking  lads  crowded  round  us  as  we  proceeded 
on  a tour  of  inspection  round  their  buildings,  and 
willingly  fell  in  to  be  photographed  when  we  expressed 
a wish  for  them  to  do  so.  They  are  very  taking 
youngsters,  these  young  Koreans,  and  one  cannot 
help  being  attracted  by  their  frank,  open  counte- 
nances, and  their  general  tone  and  manner.  It  is 
much  to  be  hoped  that  they  may  in  the  future  succeed 
better  than  their  fathers  have  done  in  helping  to 
raise  the  status  of  the  country  from  the  low  level  to 
which  it  has  fallen  in  recent  unhappy  times. 

Although  assured  early  in  the  morning  that  there 
were  no  girls’  schools  in  Seoul,  our  conductors  now, 
of  their  own  accord,  suggested  that  we  might  like 
to  visit  the  Girls’  High  School,  which  was  only 
opened  in  May,  1908,  and  which  is  now  attended  by 
about  100  girls,  of  ages  ranging  from  eight  to  eigh- 
teen. We  therefore  drove  off  in  our  ’rickshaws  to 
the  locality  in  which  it  is  situated,  and  obtained 
admission  through  a large  gateway  in  the  high  wall 
by  which  the  school  grounds  are  shut  off  from  the 
street.  On  passing  through  this,  we  entered  an 
open  courtyard,  in  which  the  girls,  who  were  tem- 
porarily out  of  school,  were  playing  games,  while 
in  one  corner  was  a swing,  and  another  part  of  the 

209 


KOREA 


playground  was  marked  out  with  a tennis-court. 
There  appeared  to  be  three  Japanese  mistresses, 
assisted  by  a Korean  lady,  who  acted  as  interpreter, 
and  they  and  their  pupils  evidently  formed  a very 
happy  contented  community,  for  the  girls  were 
joined  in  their  games  by  their  instructresses,  and  all 
were  romping  together  in  the  most  light-hearted  of 
manners.  The  girls  were  all  attired  in  little  jackets, 
some  of  which  were  of  brighter  colours  than  those 
usually  seen  in  the  streets,  being  of  green  in  some 
cases,  pink  in  others,  and  yellow  in  others  again. 
They  all  wore,  in  addition,  long  petticoats  of  thin 
black  material  fastened  high  up  above  the  waist  and 
falling  well  down  over  the  loose  trousers  worn  by  all 
women  in  Korea.  We  were  gracefully  welcomed  by 
the  Japanese  mistresses  in  the  manner  so  character- 
istic of  the  ladies  of  that  nation,  and  were  shown  by 
them  over  the  class-rooms,  model-rooms,  and  so  on; 
and  also  some  of  the  work  done  by  the  girls,  such  as 
the  making  of  artificial  forget-me-nots  and  other 
flowers,  were  exhibited,  and  specimens  presented  us. 
As  school  was  over  for  the  morning,  we  unfortunately 
were  not  able  to  see  the  pupils  at  work  as  well  as  at 
play,  and  so  took  our  departure  with  very  pleasant 
impressions  of  the  future  prospects  of  the  Korean 
maidens  of  to-day,  thanks  to  the  education  which 
is  now  within  their  reach. 

This  terminated  our  morning’s  round,  and  in  the 
afternoon  we  adjourned  to  the  Pagoda  Gardens, 
where  the  band  plays  every  Thursday  afternoon  at 
this  time  of  year.  Here  we  listened  to  some  excel- 

210 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

lent  music  for  about  an  hour  and  a half,  played  by 
a band  of  about  forty  Korean  performers,  trained 
and  conducted  by  Herr  Eckhardt,  a German,  who 
formerly  instructed  Japanese  bands  in  Japan.  The 
gardens  were  thronged  with  Koreans,  who  appar- 
ently thoroughly  appreciate  Western  music,  if  one 
may  judge  from  the  rapt  attention  with  which  they 
followed  the  programme  provided  for  their  benefit. 
A fair  sprinkling  of  the  European  community  were 
also  gathered  here,  and  numbers  of  schoolboys  put 
in  an  appearance  after  school-hours,  and,  squatting 
in  rows  in  front  of  the  stand,  seemed  to  derive  much 
pleasure  from  the  music.  With  this  gay  scene  our 
acquaintance  with  Seoul  came  to  an  end,  for  on  the 
morrow  we  were  to  continue  our  travels  to  Fusan 
and  Japan;  we  retired  early  to  rest  that  night  in 
anticipation  of  the  railway  journey  and  sea-voyage 
before  us. 

We  were  up  betimes  on  the  morning  of  October  9, 
and  had  our  baggage  conveyed  to  the  Seidaimon 
Station,  close  to  the  hotel,  in  order  to  catch  the 
8.10  train  for  Fusan.  We  were  able  to  book  right 
through  to  Shimonoseki,  the  Japanese  port,  our 
ticket  embracing  dinner  and  breakfast  next  morning 
on  the  steamer.  The  train  proceeded  first  to  the 
Nondaimon  Station,  shortly  after  leaving  which  we 
crossed  the  Han  River,  a fine  broad  stream  spanned 
by  a bridge  several  hundred  yards  in  length. 

Throughout  the  day  we  traversed  very  hilly 
country  intersected  with  numerous  streams,  flowing 
generally  through  narrow  valleys,  which  necessitated 

211 


KOREA 


stiff  grades,  and  the  construction  of  a considerable 
number  of  bridges  and  short  lengths  of  tunnel.  In 
many  of  these  valleys  rice  was  profusely  cultivated, 
the  steep  slopes  being  neatly  terraced  and  skilfully 
irrigated  by  means  of  small  dams  and  open  channels, 
which  conveyed  the  clear  limpid  waters  of  the  streams 
to  the  fields.  Villages  were  passed  at  frequent 
intervals,  nestling  picturesquely  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill-slopes,  their  thatched  roofs  being  brightened  by 
the  deep  scarlet  of  the  chillies  spread  out  on  them 
to  dry,  and  overrun,  too,  by  climbing  vegetable 
marrows,  which,  with  their  roots  in  the  soil,  clamber 
up  the  walls  of  the  huts,  and  bring  forth  on  the  roof 
fruit  of  fine  proportions.  The  persimmon  also  flour- 
ishes luxuriantly  in  the  sheltered  valleys,  and  trees 
loaded  with  the  ripening  fruit,  of  a beautiful  rich 
orange  colour,  are  a common  feature  of  these  Korean 
villages. 

In  spite  of  the  soil  of  the  valleys  appearing  highly 
fertile,  the  hillsides  are  for  the  most  part  singularly 
lacking  in  vegetation,  and  whole  ridges  quite  devoid 
of  trees  are  seen,  while  few  are  covered  with  any- 
thing more  than  a species  of  dwarf  pine,  little  larger 
than  shrubs.  This  has  probably  arisen  from  many 
generations  of  these  village  folk  having  cut  down 
everything  in  the  shape  of  a tree  of  any  size  in  their 
neighbourhood  in  order  to  obtain  fuel,  and  as  the 
science  of  forestry  was  either  unknown  or  totally 
neglected,  the  hills  have  not  unnaturally  suffered. 
The  Korean,  though  lazy,  is  yet  far  from  being  a 
bad  agriculturist,  for  he,  too,  appears  quite  capable 

212 


LAND  OF  MORNING  CALM 

of  drawing  with  little  labour  what  is  necessary  for 
his  requirements  from  the  generous  earth.  But  with 
its  fine  climate,  good  rainfall,  and  richly  watered 
fertile  land,  there  are  still  greater  possibilities  before 
Korea.  The  Japanese  are  taking  this  matter  up 
by  establishing  experimental  farms  throughout  the 
country,  and  importing  large  numbers  of  their 
own  farmers  with  a view  to  greatly  increasing 
the  areas  under  cultivation  and  improving  the  crops 
produced.  It  is  not  unlikely,  therefore,  that  in  the 
near  future  Korea  will  be  in  a position  to  export 
immense  quantities  of  rice  for  the  benefit  of  Japan 
and  other  countries.  Doubtless,  in  course  of  time, 
also  a Forestry  Department  will  undertake  the 
reafforestation  of  the  barren  heights,  which  will 
not  only  add  beauty  to  a singularly  attractive  region, 
but  should  prove  of  great  commercial  advantage 
as  well  in  years  to  come. 

For  the  last  hour  or  so  before  darkness  set  in  we 
followed  closely  the  bank  of  a large  stream,  and 
shortly  after  6.30  p.m.  reached  Fusan.  We  were 
met  at  the  station  by  the  Japanese  Vice-Resident 
of  the  port,  who  had  come  to  do  the  honours  of  the 
place  to  General  Broadwood,  and  accompanied  us  on 
our  ten  minutes’  walk  round  the  end  of  the  harbour 
to  where  the  Satsuma  Maru,  a ship  of  1,900  tons 
register,  was  lying  alongside  the  wharf.  Having 
seen  us  comfortably  installed  on  board,  he  took 
his  departure.  Although  the  moon  was  just  up,  we 
were  able  to  see  little  of  the  town,  but  were  informed 
by  the  Vice-Resident  that  it  was  divided  into  two 

213 


KOREA 


separate  colonies,  some  20,000  Japanese  occupying 
the  town  at  one  end  of  the  harbour,  whilst  about  an 
equal  number  of  Koreans  were  located  in  the  one  at 
the  other  end. 

We  cast  off  at  8 p.m.,  and  at  once  commenced  the 
sea-trip  of  some  120  miles  across  the  Straits  of  Tsu- 
shima — the  scene  of  the  memorable  naval  battle 
between  the  Russian  Baltic  Fleet  and  the  united 
Navy  of  Japan.  It  was  a lovely  evening,  and  the 
sea  was  like  glass,  so,  when  we  came  up  on  deck 
after  dinner,  we  were  able  to  enjoy  a cigarette  before 
turning  in,  while  w'e  watched  the  mountains  of  the 
Land  of  Morning  Calm  slowly  fading  from  sight, 
bathed  in  the  soft  moonlight  of  a peaceful  night. 


214 


REFORMS  AND  PROGRESS  IN  KOREA 


By  Viscount  Masatake  Terauchi 
His  Imperial  Japanese  Majesty's  Residency-General 


CHAPTER  XVn 


THE  RELATIONS  OF  KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 

During  several  decades,  many  suggestions 
were  offered  and  sincere  efforts  exerted  by 
Japan  with  a view  to  reforming  the  malad- 
ministration in  the  neighbouring  Kingdom.  The 
latter’s  gracious  Sovereign  and  patriotic  statesmen 
also  attempted  on  several  occasions  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  country,  and  many  enlightened  laws 
and  ordinances  were  enacted.  But  the  jealousies 
prevailing  among  political  parties,  which  were  often 
entangled  with  the  interests  of  rival  foreign  Powers, 
not  only  hindered  reform  measures  but  also  retarded 
the  progress  that  had  been  partially  initiated. 
After  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Russia,  Japan’s 
paramount  position  in  Korea  was  gradually  defined, 
and  subsequently  received  recognition  at  the  hands 
of  the  civilised  countries  of  East  and  West  alike. 
More  recently,  a New  Agreement  with  Korea  was 
concluded,  by  which  a Resident-General,  represent- 
ing the  Japanese  Government  in  that  country, 
was  made  the  distinctly  legalised  repository  of 
power  to  reform  the  Korean  administration.  It  is 
now  hoped  that  the  progress  of  Korea,  unhampered 
by  political  jealousies  and  international  rivalries, 
which  have  been  productive  of  so  much  harm  in  the 

217 


KOREA 


past,  will  continue  uninterruptedly,  under  the  gui- 
dance of  the  Resident-General,  aided  by  the  united 
efforts  of  the  Korean  Government  and  its  patriotic 
subjects;  and  further,  that  the  Koreans,  whose 
condition  was  greatly  impoverished,  will  gradually 
enjoy  prosperity  and  will  assimilate  the  advantages 
of  modern  civilisation. 

It  may  not  be  altogether  useless  to  make  a few 
remarks  here  upon  the  history  of  Korea’s  relations 
with  Japan  in  the  past,  so  as  to  render  clear  the 
inevitable  character  of  the  latter’s  present  responsi- 
bility. 

From  the  very  beginning,  it  has  been  the  unbroken 
policy  of  Japan  to  open  the  “Hermit  Kingdom”  to 
the  world,  to  establish  terms  of  neighbourly  friend- 
ship with  the  peninsular  nation,  to  strengthen  the 
Korean  Imperial  House,  and  to  maintain  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country.  After  the  attempts  to 
break  down  Korea’s  seclusion  — made  by  France, 
in  1866,  by  the  United  States,  in  1871,  and  later  by 
Japan,  in  1872  — had  all  failed.  General  Takamori 
Saigo  urged  the  immediate  despatch  of  an  expedi- 
tion to  Korea  to  give  effect  to  that  policy.  But 
Mr.  Ito  (now  Prince  and  Resident-General)  having 
been  commissioned,  together  with  M.  Boissonade 
(a  French  jurist,  then  legal  adviser  to  the  Japanese 
Government),  to  investigate  the  conditions  existing 
in  Korea,  a majority  of  the  Cabinet  voted  to  try 
conciliation  and  diplomacy  in  preference  to  a dis- 
play of  force.  Accordingly,  Japanese  envoi’s  were 
despatched,  and,  in  the  sequel  of  patient  efforts, 

218 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 


they  succeeded  in  concluding  a treaty  of  amity  and 
commerce  on  February  26,  1876,  in  which  Japan 
recognised  that  “Korea,  being  an  independent 
country,  enjoys  the  same  sovereign  rights  as  Japan.” 
Western  Powers  were  not  slow  to  follow  this  example. 

With  the  hope  of  making  Korea’s  independence 
a reality,  Japan  employed  all  the  resources  of  friendly 
suggestion  to  induce  the  former  to  adopt  modern 
civilised  methods,  to  reform  her  corrupt  admin- 
istration, to  reorganise  her  police  system,  and  to 
strengthen  her  military  defences,  so  as  to  be  able  to 
fulfil  her  treaty  obligations.  In  consequence,  how- 
ever, of  jealousy  between  political  parties,  nothing 
resulted  but  plots  and  counterplots.  Coups  d'etat 
and  insurrections  came  in  rapid  succession.  The 
Japanese  Legation  was  twice  attacked:  once,  in  1882, 
by  the  mob  combined  with  the  soldiery,  who  are 
habitually  used  in  Korea  as  political  tools;  and  once, 
in  1884,  by  Korean  troops  co-operating  with  Chinese. 
On  each  occasion  the  Japanese  Minister,  with  his 
wife  and  children,  had  to  fly  from  Seoul  for  safety. 
Nevertheless,  the  differences  between  Japan  and 
Korea,  in  which  China  was  inextricably  mixed  up, 
were  settled  without  any  serious  conflict  by  con- 
ventions concluded  at  Chemulpo,  in  1882,  and  at 
Seoul  and  Tientsin,  in  1885,  Thereafter,  however, 
Japan’s  endeavours  to  maintain  Korea’s  indepen- 
dence and  to  carry  out  reforms  in  her  corrupt 
administration  were  so  greatly  obstructed  by  China 
that  the  two  countries  drifted  into  war,  with  the 
result  that  China  had  to  recognise  Korean  inde- 

219 


KOREA 


pendence  by  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki,  in  1895. 
Japan  then  reverted  to  her  programme  of  friendly 
advice.  She  urged  Korea  to  reform  her  corrupt 
administration,  which  endangered  life  and  property 
and  which  must  cause  foreign  complications  cal- 
culated to  imperil  ultimately  the  integrity  of  the 
Kingdom.  Following  these  sincere  counsels,  the 
Korean  Government  engaged  a number  of  Japanese 
advisers  in  several  branches  of  officialdom,  and 
enacted  various  laws  for  the  improvement  of  internal 
administration.  But,  after  a brief  period  of  service, 
the  Japanese  advisers  were  dismissed  owing  to  polit- 
ical intrigues  as  well  as  to  the  foreign  complication 
of  1895-6.  Thus  all  the  reform  measures  hitherto 
initiated  were  arrested.  Korean  political  history 
was  a perpetual  repetition  of  the  same  tale:  plot, 
counterplot,  insurrection,  and  foreign  complications. 

Japan  was  again  compelled  to  engage  in  a costly 
war,  this  time  with  Russia,  largely  on  account 
of  Korean  affairs.  But  Japan  had  now  realised 
that  Korea  was  not  capable  of  governing  herself,  and 
that  the  policy  of  maintaining  her  independence 
could  not  be  pursued  without  certain  modifications. 
Indeed,  as  the  Resident-General  declared  in  a speech 
made  in  July,  *1907,  “the  identity  of  Korean  and 
Japanese  interests  in  the  Far  East  and  the  para- 
mount character  of  Japanese  interests  in  Korea 
will  not  permit  Japan  to  leave  Korea  to  the  care 
of  any  other  foreign  country:  she  must  assume  the 
charge  herself.” 

Thus  Japan  took  the  responsibility  of  intervention 

220 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 

in  Korean  affairs,  after  having  given  the  Koreans 
ample  opportunity  to  prove  their  fitness  for  self- 
government,  and  after  having  found  them  wholly 
unprepared  for  the  task.  Subsequently  to  the 
outbreak  of  war  with  Russia,  Japan,  by  succes- 
sive agreements,  obtained  entire  control  of  Korea’s 
foreign  affairs.  This  fact  being  afterwards  recognised 
by  the  other  Treaty  Powers,  they  duly  withdrew 
their  diplomatic  representatives  from  Seoul.  With 
respect  to  domestic  affairs,  Japan  has  assumed 
advisory  supervision  of  the  general  administra- 
tion, but,  in  military  matters,  if  “the  welfare  of 
the  Imperial  House  or  the  territorial  integrity  of 
Korea”  is  endangered  by  the  aggression  of  a third 
Power,  or  by  internal  disturbances,  Japan  is  to 
have  direct  control.  Further,  the  “control  and 
administration  of  the  post,  telegraph,  and  telephone 
services  in  Korea  (except  the  telephone  service 
exclusively  pertaining  to  the  Department  of  the 
Imperial  Household)  ” have  been  transferred  to  the 
Japanese  Government. 

In  addition  to  assuming  direct  control  of  Korean 
affairs,  the  Resident-General,  representing  the  Jap- 
anese Government,  commenced  faithfully  to  exercise 
his  advisory  functions  in  the  general  administration. 
As  to  the  details  of  his  procedure,  he  caused  the 
Korean  Government  to  engage  a number  of  Jap- 
anese advisers,  councillors,  or  assistant-councillors, 
both  for  the  Imperial  Household  and  for  the  vari- 
ous Departments  of  State,  in  addition  to  a financial 
adviser  and  a diplomatic  adviser,  who  had  been 

221 


KOREA 


engaged  before  the  establishment  of  the  Residency- 
General.  Technical  experts  were  also  engaged  for 
the  public  works  and  for  the  model  experimental 
farms  where  instruction  was  given  in  industry, 
agriculture,  and  forestry.  In  matters  relating  to 
the  reform  of  local  administration,  it  was  arranged 
that  the  Vice-Residents  of  the  Japanese  local  Resi- 
dencies should  act  as  councillors  to  Provincial  Gov- 
ernors; and  Finance  Councillors  were  distributed 
among  the  thirteen  provinces  to  act  as  advisers  to 
the  Provincial  Tax  Supervisors.  Assistant-Council- 
lors were  to  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  Tax 
Assessors  in  important  districts.  As  to  police  admin- 
istration, in  addition  to  a Police  Advisory  Board, 
having  its  headquarters  in  the  Central  Government, 
there  were  attached  to  each  of  the  thirteen  provincial 
capitals  similar  police  advisory  boards,  under  which 
were  branch  boards,  the  Japanese  advisory  police 
working  with  the  Korean  police  side  by  side.  For 
the  administration  of  justice,  a Japanese  legal 
councillor,  or  assistant-councillor,  was  attached  to 
each  of  the  courts,  local  and  high,  in  Seoul,  and  to 
each  of  the  courts  in  the  Provincial  Governments 
as  well  as  to  magistracies  of  prefectures  and  districts. 
Thus  no  radical  changes  were  introduced  into  the 
old  Korean  administrative  organisation.  On  the 
contrary,  the  Resident-General  tried  to  improve 
the  existing  Korean  administration  by  general  gui- 
dance under  the  various  Japanese  advisory  bodies. 
The  Central  Government  had  competence  to  enact 
any  necessary  laws  and  ordinances  for  reform 

222 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 


measures,  and  to  instruct  Local  Governments  to 
act  in  accordance  with  advice,  while  local  oflScials 
were  expected  to  pay  due  attention  to  advice  given 
by  the  Japanese  councillors. 

But  the  operation  of  this  system  proved  unsatis- 
factory, owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Korean  officials 
paid  little  respect  to  the  advice  given,  so  long  as 
they  were  free  to  adopt  or  reject  it  at  will.  More- 
over, the  incapacity  of  Korean  officials  and  the 
habitually  crooked  methods  of  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment greatly  handicapped  the  success  of  the  pro- 
jected programme.  Thus  it  resulted  that  advisory 
guidance  had  practically  little  or  no  effect  in  bring- 
ing about  the  desired  changes  in  the  old-time  malad- 
ministration of  affairs.  So  many  evils  and  abuses 
had  taken  deep  root  that  more  direct  management 
on  the  part  of  the  Resident-General,  together  with 
some  modifications  in  the  Government  organisation 
and  the  employment  of  capable  officials,  became 
vitally  important,  since  otherwise  the  welfare  and 
prosperity  of  the  Korean  people  could  not  be  pro- 
moted. These  experiences  and  considerations  com- 
pelled the  conclusion  of  a new  Agreement.  It 
was  signed  on  July  24,  1907.  By  it  the  Resident- 
General  was  given  more  direct  participative  power 
in  the  general  administration.  He  acquired  initia- 
tive as  well  as  consultory  competence  to  enact  and 
enforce  laws  and  ordinances,  to  appoint  and  remove 
Korean  officials,  and  to  place  capable  Japanese 
subjects  in  the  ranks  of  Korean  officialdom.  The 
Agreement  provided  specially  for  differentiation  of 

223 


KOREA 


the  Judiciary  and  the  Executive,  as  much  corruption 
existed  under  the  old  system  which  invested  both  the 
provincial  governors  and  the  district  magistrates 
with  judicial  functions. 

So  important  was  this  Agreement  that  it  should 
be  regarded  as  the  new  and  fundamental  principle 
for  the  reform  of  the  Korean  Administration,  in 
pursuance  of  which  object  so  many  measures  had 
hitherto  proved  abortive.  Therefore  it  will  be  w^ell 
to  quote  at  length  the  provisions  of  the  Agreement : — 

“1.  The  Government  of  Korea  shall  act  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Resident-General  in  respect  to 
reforms  in  administration. 

“2.  The  Government  of  Korea  engage  not  to 
enact  any  laws,  ordinances,  or  regulations,  or  take 
any  important  measures  of  administration,  without 
the  previous  assent  of  the  Resident-General. 

“3.  The  judicial  affairs  in  Korea  shall  be  set  apart 
from  the  affairs  of  ordinary  administration. 

“4.  The  appointment  and  dismissal  of  all  high 
officials  in  Korea  shall  be  made  upon  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Resident-General. 

“5.  The  Government  of  Korea  shall  appoint  as 
Korean  officials  Japanese  subjects  recommended 
by  the  Resident-General.” 

By  the  Convention  concluded  on  November  17, 
1905,  the  Japanese  Government  was  to  be  repre- 
sented at  the  Imperial  Korean  Court  by  a Tokan 
(Resident-General)  “primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  charge  of  and  directing  matters  relating  to 
diplomatic  affairs,”  and  this  Tokan  was  to  have 

224 


THE  TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN  WHERE  THi:  EMPEROR  PRAYED  FOR 
RAIN  AND  THE  NATIONAL  BLESSINGS 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 

“the  right  of  private  and  personal  audience”  with 
the  Korean  Emperor,  while  Rijikan  (Residents) 
were  to  be  stationed  at  the  several  open  ports  and 
at  such  other  important  places  in  Korea  as  the 
Japanese  Government  might  deem  necessary,  in 
order  primarily  to  exercise  “the  powers  and  func- 
tions hitherto  appertaining  to  Japanese  Consuls  in 
Korea.”  The  detailed  organisation  and  functions  of 
the  To-Kan-Fu  (the  Residency-General)  and  the  Riji- 
cho  (Residencies)  were  first  set  forth  in  Imperial 
Ordinance  No.  267,  issued  on  December  20,  1905, 
and  were  amended  by  Imperial  Ordinance  No.  295, 
issued  soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  New  Agree- 
ment of  1907.  Directly  appointed  by  the  Japanese 
Emperor,  the  Resident-General  is  responsible  to 
none  but  the  Sovereign  of  Japan.  He  addresses  the 
Japanese  Throne  and  seeks  Imperial  sanction  for 
all  matters  through  the  Prime  Minister,  but  in 
matters  relating  to  Foreign  Affairs,  he  must  first 
communicate  with  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 
According  to  the  first  Imperial  Ordinance,  he  had 
“general  control  of  all  business  relating  to  foreigners 
and  foreign  consulates  in  Korea,  with  the  exception 
of  such  as  pass  through  the  foreign  Representatives 
resident”  in  Japan;  he  had  to  “oversee  all  administra- 
tive business  carried  out  by  the  Imperial  (Japanese) 
authorities  and  officers  in  Korea”  which  falls  within 
the  purview  of  the  treaty  stipulations,  and  he  had 
to  “discharge  all  functions  of  supervision  hitherto 
devolving  on  the  Imperial  authorities.”  The  New 
Agreement  confers  on  the  Residency-General  more 

225 


KOREA 


direct  powers  over  the  internal  afiFairs  of  Korea, 
and  the  functions  of  the  Resident-General  are  pro- 
vided for  in  general  terms  and  in  a wider  sense  in 
the  amended  Ordinance,  which  reads  as  follows:  — 
“The  Resident-General  shall  represent  the  Imperial 
Government  of  Japan  in  Korea  and  control  general 
political  affairs  in  accordance  with  treaties,  laws,  and 
ordinances.”  The  military  power  is  also  vested  in 
the  Resident-General,  and  he  has  competence  to 
issue  orders  direct  to  the  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Japanese  garrison  troops  in  Korea  for  the  employ- 
ment of  military  force,  if  he  deem  “such  a course 
necessary  for  the  better  preservation  of  peace  and 
order  in  Korea.”  In  discharging  his  functions, 
the  Resident-General  had  originally  under  him  a 
Director  General,  a Director  of  Foreign  Affairs,  a 
Director  of  Agricultural,  Commercial,  and  Industrial 
Affairs,  a Director  of  Police  Affairs,  a Private  Secre- 
tary, seven  Secretaries,  two  Police  Inspectors,  five 
Engineers,  ten  Interpreters,  and  45  subordinate 
officials.  By  the  amended  Ordinance,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Residency-General  has  been  modified, 
so  that  the  offices  of  Director  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
Director  of  x\gricultural,  Commercial,  and  Indus- 
trial Affairs,  and  Director  of  Police  Affairs  have 
been  abolished;  while  a Fuku-Tokan  (Vice-Resident 
General)  and  two  permanent  Councillors  have  been 
created.  There  are  also  slight  changes  in  the 
number  of  the  other  officials.  But  there  is  no 
alteration  with  regard  to  the  Director  General:  his 
functions  continue  to  be  the  direction  of  general 

226 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 


affairs  in  the  Residency-General.  By  the  New 
Agreement  the  functions  of  the  Resident-General 
being  largely  increased,  the  creation  of  the  office 
of  Vice-Resident-General,  to  assist  the  Resident- 
General  and  to  act  in  the  latter’s  stead  in  case  of 
absence  or  inability,  is  very  important.  The  Vice- 
Resident-General  also  is  appointed  direct  by  the 
Emperor.  One  of  the  permanent  Councillors  is 
to  be  Chief  of  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
and  the  other.  Chief  of  the  Supervisory  Department. 
In  addition  to  these  officials  the  Vice-Ministers  of 
the  Korean  Cabinet  and  of  the  Imperial  House- 
hold are  ex-officio  Councillors  in  the  Residency- 
General.  Under  the  Resident-General  are  the 
Resident-General’s  Secretariat,  the  charge  of  which 
is  taken  by  the  Director  General;  a Department  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  a Supervisory  Department,  and  a 
Department  of  Local  Affairs.  The  Resident-Gen- 
eral’s Secretariat  is  again  divided  into  three  sec- 
tions, which  deal  respectively  with  Documents, 
Accounts,  and  Personnel. 

Moreover,  under  the  Resident-General  are  a 
Bureau  of  Communications,  a Railway  Bureau,  a 
Forest  Undertaking  Station,  and  an  Appeal  Court 
of  Japan  in  Korea,  the  last  of  which  entertains  all 
cases  appealed  from  the  courts  maintained  by 
Japanese  Residencies. 

The  Japanese  Consulates,  or  their  branch  offices 
in  Korea,  were  converted  into  Residencies  in  Jan- 
uary, 190G.  The  Residents  stationed  at  Seoul, 
the  open  ports,  and  other  important  places  are  to 

227 


KOREA 


discharge,  under  the  orders  and  supervision  of  the 
Resident-General,  “the  duties  originally  pertaining 
to  Consuls  in  Korea,  together  with  such  duties  as 
the  treaties  and  laws  require  Residents  to  perform.” 
The  control  of  Korean  foreign  affairs  having  been 
transferred  to  the  Japanese  Government,  the  func- 
tions of  the  Korean  local  authorities  relating  to 
foreigners  and  foreign  Consuls  have  been  assumed 
by  the  Resident.  That  is  to  say,  the  issuing  of  title 
deeds  of  land,  and  the  collecting  of  rents  or  land 
taxes  in  the  foreign  settlements,  hitherto  done  by 
Korean  Superintendents  at  treaty  ports,  have  all 
been  entrusted  to  the  Japanese  Residents.  The 
Residents  may  issue  passports  to  foreigners  w’ho 
desire  to  travel  in  the  interior  or  outside  treaty 
limits,  and  to  Korean  officials  or  private  persons 
proceeding  abroad.  The  Resident  is  also  concerned 
with  foreigners  claiming  proprietory  rights  of  real 
estate  or  mortgage  rights  in  regions  outside  treaty 
limits,  under  “the  Regulations  for  certifying  the 
Proprietorship  of  Lands  or  Houses.”  These  Regu- 
lations went  into  force  from  December  1,  1906. 
They  provide  that,  if  one  of  the  parties  concerned 
in  a contract  of  sale,  gift,  exchange,  or  mortgage  of 
real  estate  is  a foreigner,  the  contract  should  first 
be  certified  by  the  Korean  local  authorities,  and 
again  examined  and  certified  by  the  nearest  Resident, 
otherwise  the  contract  can  not  be  regarded  as  valid. 
When  both  parties  are  foreigners,  the  Resident 
certifies  the  contract  and  gives  notice  of  the  same 
to  the  local  authorities  for  registration.  By  “the 

228 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 


Regulations  for  the  Enforcement  of  Foreclosing 
Mortgages  upon  Lands  and  Houses,”  which  have 
been  in  effect  since  February  1,  1907,  the  Korean 
local  authorities,  when  a dispute  arises  between  a 
native  debtor  and  an  alien  creditor  with  regard 
to  foreclosing  a mortgage,  are  to  settle  the  case 
with  the  approval  of  the  nearest  Resident.  If  the 
debtor  is  a foreigner  and  the  creditor  a native,  the 
Resident  settles  the  question  with  the  approval 
of  the  local  authorities.  WTien  both  parties  are 
foreigners,  the  Resident  settles  the  question  by 
himself  and  then  notifies  the  Korean  authorities 
of  his  decision. 

Concerning  the  improvement  of  local  administra- 
tion, a branch  office  of  a Residency  was  established 
in  September,  1906,  at  each  place  where  a seat  of 
provincial  government  was  located,  and  a Vice- 
Resident  had  to  act  as  adviser  to  the  Governor  in 
reforms  of  local  administration.  But  as  a result 
of  the  New  Agreement,  a Japanese  subject  being 
now  appointed  as  secretary  to  each  provincial  govern- 
ment, the  above  branch  office  of  the  Residency 
became  unnecessary,  and  ceased  to  exist  on  the 
31st  December,  1907. 

Again,  as  results  of  the  New  Agreement,  the 
Korean  Government  reorganised  the  police  admin- 
istration, appointing  Japanese  subjects  as  Chiefs 
of  Police  Bureaus  and  as  Inspector  General  of  the 
Metropolitan  Police  Board;  while  the  Japanese 
police,  formerly  engaged  in  police  advisory  bodies, 
became  Korean  police,  and  the  Japanese  police 

229 


KOREA 


force  hitherto  maintained  by  the  Residencies  was 
amalgamated  with  the  Korean  police  on  the  2nd  of 
September,  1906.  Residents,  however,  still  retain 
powers  of  command  and  superintendence  over  the 
police  appointed  by  the  Korean  Government,  so 
far  as  concerns  affairs  relating  to  Japanese  subjects 
in  Korea. 

In  the  place  of  Chief  Police  Inspector,  each 
Residency  has  created  an  office  of  Chief  Prison 
Inspector,  who  has  charge  of  prison  affairs  relating 
to  Japanese  criminals  in  Korea. 

The  so-called  “Open  door  policy”  in  Korea  has 
been  from  the  very  beginning  maintained  by  the 
Japanese  Government.  In  both  the  treaties  of 
alliance  between  England  and  Japan,  concluded 
on  January  30,  1902,  and  on  August  12,  1905, 
respectively,  adherence  to  that  policy  was  a funda- 
mental key  note  of  the  engagements.  In  the  latter 
treaty  especially  Japan  solemnly  and  explicitly 
pledged  herself  to  observe  “the  principle  of  equal 
opportunities  for  the  commerce  and  industry  of 
all  nations,”  while  Great  Britain  recognised  the 
right  of  Japan  to  take  measures  for  “the  guidance, 
control,  and  protection  of  Korea.”  Although  Japan, 
in  accordance  with  the  Convention  concluded  on 
November  17, 1905,  assumed  the  entire  control  of  the 
foreign  affairs  of  Korea  and  undertook  the  duty  of 
watching  over  “the  execution  of  the  treaties  actually 
existing  between  Korea  and  other  Powers,”  five 
days  after  the  conclusion  of  this  Convention,  namely, 
on  November  22,  1905,  a circular  note  was  addressed 

230 


KOREA  WITH  JAPAN 


to  the  Treaty  Powers,  in  which  the  Imperial  Gov- 
ernment of  Japan  declared  that  “in  assuming  charge 
of  the  foreign  relations  of  Korea  and  undertaking 
the  duty  of  watching  over  the  execution  of  the 
existing  treaties  of  that  country,  they  will  see  that 
those  treaties  are  maintained  and  respected,  and  they 
also  engage  not  to  prejudice  in  any  way  the  legiti- 
mate commercial  and  industrial  interests  of  these 
Powers  in  Korea.” 

Since  the  establishment  of  the  Residency-General 
in  Seoul,  the  Resident-General  has  faithfully  observed 
this  principle  of  his  Government,  and  exerted  his 
power  and  influence  along  the  line  of  the  “Open 
door  policy.”  For  example,  the  privilege  of  mining 
in  Korea  was  not  previously  given  to  aliens,  except 
by  special  grant  in  rare  cases.  But  as  a result  of 
the  operation  of  the  mining  laws  and  their  detailed 
regulations,  enacted,  in  1906,  by  the  advice  of  the 
Residency-General,  mining  concessions  became  open 
to  any  alien  on  making  due  application;  and  the 
right  of  transferring  the  concession  by  sale,  gift, 
succession,  or  mortgage  was  fully  secured.  Such 
was  also  the  case  with  the  holding  of  real  estate.  A 
provision  in  the  Korean  criminal  law  prohibits 
Koreans  from  selling  real  estate  (private  or  public), 
or  any  forest  land  outside  the  treaty  limits,  to  aliens, 
either  directly  or  indirectly.  Nevertheless,  the  laws 
for  certifying  the  proprietorship  of  houses  and  lands 
and  the  foreclosing  of  mortgages  create  competence 
to  recognise  the  right  of  aliens  to  own  real  estate 
under  certain  conditions. 

231 


KOREA 


Debt  claims  and  complaints  by  foreigners  against 
the  Korean  Court  or  Government  were  not  promptly 
or  satisfactorily  settled  until  the  Resident-General 
began  to  take  charge  of  matters  concerning  foreigners. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  a claim  for 
a large  sum  preferred  by  a foreign  firm  in  Seoul 
against  the  Korean  Court  on  account  of  imported 
rice,  railway  material,  and  ammunition.  The  affair 
had  been  long  outstanding  when,  application  having 
been  made  to  the  Residency-General,  the  latter 
proposed  to  have  it  settled  by  a commission  of 
inquiry,  consisting  of  members  of  the  Finance 
Bureau  of  the  Imperial  Household,  of  the  Residency- 
General,  and  of  the  Consulate  whose  national  was 
concerned.  The  investigation  lasted  several  months, 
and  it  was  finally  decided  that  a due  amount  should 
be  paid  to  the  firm.  Moreover,  claims  for  salary 
made  by  two  foreign  engineers  in  the  service  of  the 
Imperial  Household,  and  by  an  employee;  a claim 
by  a foreign  bank  in  connection  with  a discounted 
note,  and  a claim  on  account  of  provisions  supplied 
to  the  Imperial  Household  by  a Chinese  firm  w’ere 
all  satisfactorily  settled  through  the  good  offices  of 
the  Residency-General. 


232 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  ADMINISTRATION 

Although  Japan  has  assumed  protectory 
responsibility  in  Korea,  yet  the  strength- 
ening of  the  Imperial  House  and  the  main- 
tenance of  its  dignity  have  been,  and  ever  will  be, 
one  of  her  fundamental  principles.  In  the  Protocol 
concluded  on  February  23,  1904,  the  Japanese  Gov- 
ernment guaranteed  “the  safety  and  tranquillity 
of  the  Imperial  House  of  Korea.”  Again,  in  the 
convention  concluded  on  November  17,  1905,  when 
the  right  of  establishing  the  Residency-General  at 
Seoul  was  secured,  the  Japanese  Government  declared 
that  it  undertook  “to  maintain  the  welfare  and  dig- 
nity of  the  Imperial  House  of  Korea.”  Soon  after 
the  Resident-General  had  assumed  his  duties  in 
Seoul,  he  repeatedly  advised  the  Korean  Court  to 
clearly  differentiate  the  functions  of  the  Court  from 
those  of  the  State,  their  confusion  having  been  a 
chief  cause  of  the  weakness  and  corruption  of  the 
Korean  Government  and  of  the  Imperial  Court  as 
well. 

The  separation  of  the  State  from  the  Imperial 
Household  had  been  attempted  previously  soon  after 
the  Chino-Japanese  War,  under  Japanese  advisers, 
by  the  enactment  of  regulations  for  the  Cabinet  and 

233 


KOREA 


for  the  Department  of  the  Imperial  Household,  As 
a result  of  these  measures,  the  Imperial  Household 
Department  was  created  for  the  first  time,  the  sphere 
of  its  activities  being  confined  purely  to  Household 
matters,  administrative  functions  being  left  entirely 
to  the  Cabinet,  and  the  Minister  of  the  Imperial 
Household  not  being  included  among  the  members 
of  the  Cabinet.  But  these  reform  measures  were 
rendered  wholly  inoperative  by  the  coup  d'etat  of 
1895-1896,  which  resulted  in  the  Imperial  House- 
hold soon  again  becoming  confused  with  the  Execu- 
tive. Administrative  officials  were  appointed  through 
the  Minister  of  the  Imperial  Household;  offices  were 
often  sold  by  him,  or  by  influential  officials  in  the 
Imperial  Household,  without  reference  to  the  Min- 
ister of  State  concerned,  and  not  only  were  taxes 
collected  by  officials  despatched  from  the  Imperial 
Household,  but  also  the  sphere  of  national  finance 
was  in  other  ways  frequently  invaded  by  them.  This 
confusion  produced  innumerable  evils  and  abuses  in 
the  Imperial  Household.  Many  thousands  of  inca- 
pable officials  were  appointed  and  many  superfluous 
offices  created,  some  of  the  latter  keeping  separate 
accounts  and  collecting  revenue  and  paying  expenses 
independently.  Sales  of  offices,  bribes,  and  con- 
fiscations of  private  property  were  quite  prevalent 
among  influential  officials  in  the  Imperial  House- 
hold. Further,  although  theoretically  the  Minister 
of  the  Imperial  Household  controlled  all  officials 
under  him  and  alone  had  competence  to  address  the 
Throne  and  obtain  Imperial  sanction,  yet  many 

234 


THE  ADMINISTRATION 

officials,  favourites  of  the  Emperor,  independently 
and  freely  approached  the  Sovereign  and  irrespon- 
sibly gave  counsel  to  His  Majesty.  The  Imperial 
Palace  was  moreover  frequented  by  diviners,  for- 
tune-tellers, and  other  persons,  men  and  women,  of 
obscure  origin  and  questionable  character,  their  sole 
object  being  to  cheat  and  extract  money  from  the 
Imperial  purse,  in  co-operation  with  native  and  for- 
eign schemers.  Political  as  well  as  personal  dissen- 
sions occasioned  plots  and  counterplots  even  within 
the  Palace  itself.  In  the  face  of  these  perilous 
conditions  the  Resident-General  could  not  remain 
silent.  Hence,  as  stated  in  the  report  for  1906,  the 
Residency-General,  having  obtained  the  Imperial 
consent,  caused,  in  1906,  the  Police  Adviser  to  sta- 
tion constables  at  each  gate  of  the  Palace,  in  order 
to  keep  off  persons  of  questionable  character,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  “ Palace  Precincts  Ordinance” 
was  promulgated,  by  which  passes  were  to  be  issued 
only  to  known  persons  who  had  legitimate  business 
with  the  Court. 

Thus  the  Resident-General  used  his  best  exertions 
to  purify  the  chronic  state  of  corruption  which  had 
become  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  Imperial  Household, 
and  to  improve  the  management  of  Court  affairs, 
through  the  intervention  of  advisers  and  councillors. 
But  inasmuch  as  the  Court  was  free  to  accept  or 
reject  this  advice  at  will,  the  reforms  in  the  Imperial 
Household  were  not  satisfactorily  carried  into  effect 
until  the  conclusion  of  the  New  Agreement.  As  a 
result  of  the  latter,  the  Resident-General  acquired 

235 


KOREA 


the  right  of  more  direct  intervention  in  the  affairs 
of  the  Imperial  House,  and  Japanese  officials  were 
nominated  to  important  offices  in  the  Court.  New 
regulations  for  the  Imperial  Household  were  pro- 
mulgated on  November  29,  1907.  By  them  the 
Minister  of  the  Household  alone  has  the  right  to 
address  the  Throne  and  obtain  its  sanction  in  matters 
concerning  the  Imperial  Household,  and,  whereas 
twenty-four  offices  had  existed  in  the  previous 
organisation,  these  were  consolidated  or  reduced  to 
thirteen,  an  establishment  of  several  thousand  officials 
being  cut  down  to,  at  most,  one-third  of  that  number, 
while  accounts  hitherto  kept  independently  at  vari- 
ous offices  were  brought  under  the  sole  management 
of  the  Nai-chan  Won  (Bureau  of  Accounts). 

As  the  properties  owned  or  controlled  by  the 
Imperial  House  had  fallen  into  a disordered  condi- 
tion, a “Bureau  of  Readjustment  of  the  Imperial 
House  Property,”  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
Minister  of  the  Household,  was  also  established  in 
November,  1907.  This  Bureau  is  to  conduct  all 
business  relating  to  the  readjustment,  maintenance, 
and  management  of  properties,  movable  or  immov- 
able, of  the  Imperial  House. 

Again,  the  properties  owned  or  managed  by  the 
Imperial  House,  being  much  confused  or  confounded 
with  those  belonging  to  the  State,  an  “Imperial  and 
State  Property  Investigation  Committee”  has  been 
established  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  the 
properties  of  the  Imperial  House  and  the  State,  to 
define  their  respective  ownership  and  to  settle  mat- 

236 


THE  ADMINISTRATION 


ters  relating  to  their  readjustment.  Its  ex-officio 
committee  consisted  of  the  Vice-Ministers  of  the 
Imperial  Household,  and  of  the  Department  of 
Finance  and  the  Interior,  under  the  Presidency 
of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and 
Industry. 

The  Korean  administrative  system  in  the  Central 
Government,  like  the  Central  Government  in  China, 
was  conducted  by  a board  consisting  of  Ministers 
of  State  and  other  influential  personages  in  the 
Imperial  Court.  It  was  called  the  Wi-jong-pu 
(Deliberative  Board).  Being  essentially  what  its 
title  implies,  namely,  a deliberative  body,  its  head 
Minister  Wi-jong  had  no  adequate  power  to  control 
the  administration  of  the  various  departments  or  to 
maintain  uniformity  or  harmony  among  them,  his 
duties  being  little  more  than  to  preside  at  the  council 
meetings.  Under  such  a system,  even  the  detailed 
regulations  of  a particular  administrative  depart- 
ment having  to  be  submitted  for  approval  by  the 
Wi-jong-pu,  each  Minister  of  State  had  little  discre- 
tionary power,  so  that  promptness  and  eflSciency 
were  hardly  to  be  expected.  It  naturally  resulted 
that  many  superfluous  offices  came  into  existence 
and  incompetent  officials  were  appointed.  Further- 
more, the  confusion  between  the  State  and  the 
Court,  mentioned  above,  constantly  hampered  the 
execution  of  administrative  measures. 

In  the  reforms  of  1895,  a modern  system  of  admin- 
istration was  first  inaugurated  by  establishing  a 
Cabinet,  in  which  the  Minister  of  the  Imperial 

237 


KOREA 


Household  was  not  included,  the  object  being  to 
draw  a clear  line  of  demarcation  between  the  Court 
and  the  State.  But  this  reform  was  defeated  by  the 
coup  d' Hat  of  1896,  the  Cabinet  being  then  abolished 
and  the  old  system  of  deliberative  government 
restored  by  an  Imperial  edict  issued  on  September 
24th  of  that  year.  Thereafter,  according  to  a body 
of  amended  regulations  for  the  organisation  of  the 
Deliberative  Board,  issued  as  an  Imperial  edict  on 
June  16,  1898,  the  Minister  of  the  Imperial  House- 
hold was  again  included  among  the  members  of  the 
Cabinet,  the  old  confusion  between  the  affairs  of  the 
State  and  those  of  the  Imperial  Household  being 
thus  recreated. 

After  the  Russo-Japanese  War,  the  Japanese 
Financial  Adviser  to  the  Korean  Government  first 
suggested  reforming  the  administrative  organisation 
from  the  fiscal  side.  That  is  to  say,  reforms  were 
confined  to  reduction  of  unnecessary  officials;  the 
abolition  or  amalgamation  of  different  parts  of  the 
State  establishment  and  the  redistribution  of  official 
functions  being  relegated  to  the  future.  Thus, 
under  the  provisions  of  regulations  relating  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Central  Government,  which 
were  issued  in  March,  1905,  the  number  of  officials 
was  reduced  from  751  to  571,  and  although  the  State 
saved  only  40,000  yen  by  this  reform,  the  honesty  of 
the  officials  was  secured  to  a large  extent  by  increas- 
ing their  salaries.  Moreover,  the  functions  of  the 
Minister  of  the  Imperial  Household  were  by  regula- 
tion confined  to  affairs  of  the  Household  only,  and 

238 


THE  ADMINISTRATION 


thus  the  separation  of  the  State  from  the  Court  was 
attempted. 

Acting  on  the  advice  of  the  Residency-General,  the 
Korean  Government  improved  its  central  adminis- 
tration by  the  operation  of  new  regulations  relating 
to  Cabinet  organisation  (issued  on  June  16,  1907). 
The  term  “Cabinet”  was  substituted  for  that  of 
Wi-jong-pu.  It  consisted  of  a Minister  President 
of  State  and  Ministers  of  Home  Affairs,  Finance, 
Education,  War,  Justice,  and  Agricultural,  Com- 
mercial, and  Industrial  Affairs.  As  for  the  Ministry 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  it  was  transferred  to  Japan  by 
the  convention  concluded  on  November  17,  1905. 
The  Minister  President  of  State  (Prime  Minister)  is 
empowered  to  control  the  Ministers  of  the  several 
Departments  and  to  maintain  harmony  among  them. 
Every  law  or  Imperial  Ordinance  has  to  be  counter- 
signed by  the  Prime  Minister  and  the  Minister,  or 
Ministers,  of  State  concerned  in  the  matter,  and  the 
signatories  are  responsible  to  the  Sovereign  for  the 
measure. 

According  to  the  regulations  for  the  organisation 
of  the  various  Departments  of  State,  promulgated 
in  December,  1907,  though  the  Minister  of  each 
Department  is  under  the  control  of  the  Prime  Min- 
ister and  must  obtain  Imperial  sanction  through 
the  latter  in  appointing  or  removing  high  oflacials 
in  his  Department,  he  has  ample  discretionary  power 
to  issue  administrative  decrees  within  his  jurisdic- 
tion and  to  appoint  or  dismiss  subordinate  officials. 
The  function  of  the  Vice-Minister  of  State,  who  is 

239 


KOREA 


to  be  a Japanese  and  from  whom  administrative 
efficiency  is  expected,  is  “to  assist  the  Minister  of 
State,  to  take  charge  of  Departmental  affairs,  and 
to  supervise  all  business  of  the  Department.” 

Soon  after  the  Resident-General  had  assumed  his 
duties  in  Korea,  he  was  confronted  by  the  question 
of  local  administration,  among  many  others.  As 
stated  in  the  report  for  1906,  a special  commission, 
consisting  of  several  Korean  officials  and  two  Jap- 
anese from  the  staff  of  the  Resident-General,  was 
established  under  the  direction  of  the  Resident-Gen- 
eral in  order  to  draft  measures  for  the  improvement 
of  local  administration,  by  thoroughly  investigating 
the  root  of  the  evils  and  abuses  incidental  to  the 
old  system,  while,  at  the  same  time,  being  careful  to 
avoid  radical  changes  such  as  might  provoke  need- 
less popular  antagonism.  This  investigation  found 
expression  in  the  organic  laws  of  the  local  adminis- 
tration, embodied  in  Imperial  edicts  and  decrees  of 
the  Department  of  Home  Affairs,  issued  in  Septem- 
ber, 1906.  According  to  these  laws,  the  offices  of 
crown  commissioner  and  of  superintendent  in  the 
treaty  ports  were  abolished,  and  districts  contain- 
ing open  ports  were  elevated  to  prefectures,  making 
the  total  administrative  divisions  of  the  country 
13  provinces,  11  prefectures,  and  333  districts. 
Although,  under  this  system,  provincial  governors 
were  to  be  controlled  by  the  Central  Government, 
and  prefects  and  magistrates  by  the  provincial  gov- 
ernors, a certain  measure  of  local  autonomy  was 
recognised,  such  as  a governor’s  power  to  le\'y^ 

240 


THE  ADMINISTRATION 


local  taxes  and  to  issue  administrative  decrees,  the 
same  authority  being  given  to  prefects  and  magis- 
trates within  their  jurisdictions.  As  corruption  in 
connection  with  the  sale  and  purchase  of  offices  and 
the  appointment  of  unqualified  officials  cried  aloud 
for  remedy,  a “Local  Civil  Service  Supervisory 
Committee”  was  established;  and  it  was  enacted 
that  the  appointment  of  all  local  administrative 
high  officials  must  be  subject  to  examination  and 
approval  by  this  Committee.  In  order  to  encourage 
honesty  among  officials,  salaries  were  increased  all 
round,  and  an  entertaining  allowance  was  given  to 
principal  officials. 

By  the  reform  measures  of  1906,  the  local  admin- 
istration under  the  Japanese  advisers  was  expected 
to  improve  gradually  as  compared  with  its  former 
condition,  and  was  also  expected  to  prepare  the 
way  for  a system  of  local  autonomy,  the  old  idea 
of  decentralisation  being  preserved.  It  was  soon 
found,  however,  that  a more  centralised  administra- 
tion was  needed  for  the  practical  welfare  of  Korea,  so 
long  as  her  political,  social,  and  economic  conditions 
were  in  a primitive  stage;  and  that,  for  purposes  of 
local  administrative  reform,  guidance  more  direct 
than  mere  advice  was  necessary.  Hence,  after  the 
conclusion  of  the  New  Agreement,  well  qualified 
Japanese  subjects  have  been  appointed  to  the  posts 
of  Secretary  (one).  Chief  Police  Inspector  (one),  and 
Clerks  (three)  in  each  provincial  government.  Fur- 
ther, the  provincial  governors’  power  of  levying 
local  taxes,  which  had  been  conferred  by  the  previ- 

241 


KOREA 


ous  regulations,  was  rescinded;  their  jurisdiction 
in  matters  relating  to  weights  and  measures  and 
mineral  products  was  transferred  to  the  Central 
Government;  and  the  power  of  prefects  and  local 
magistrates  to  issue  administrative  decrees  was  also 
revoked.  The  functions  of  the  Secretary  (Japan- 
ese) in  the  provincial  governments,  by  whose  efforts 
large  improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  local  ad- 
ministration is  hoped  for,  are  primarily  to  assist  the 
Governor;  to  act  in  the  latter’s  capacity  in  case 
of  his  absence  or  temporary  inability  to  discharge 
duty;  and  to  have  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to 
local  administration,  charity,  religion,  ceremonies, 
public  works,  education,  foreigners,  and  the  encour- 
agement of  industry.  The  functions  of  the  Chief 
Police  Inspector  (Japanese)  are  to  have  charge  of 
matters  relating  to  police,  sanitation,  census,  and 
emigration. 


242 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  JUDICIARY 

IN  Oriental  countries,  generally  speaking,  the 
judiciary  is  not  separate  from  the  executive, 
and  this  used  to  be  specially  true  in  Korea, 
where  provincial  governors  and  local  magistrates 
commonly  discharged  judicial  functions  in  their  ex- 
ecutive capacity.  Judicial  reforms  were  begun  first 
under  Japanese  advisers  soon  after  the  China-Japan 
War.  A code  for  the  constitution  of  law  courts  was 
promulgated  on  March  25,  1895.  It  provided  for 
the  establishment  of  a special  court  to  deal  with 
crimes  committed  by  members  of  the  Imperial 
family,  a court  of  cassation,  circuit  courts,  “treaty- 
port  courts”  which  should  administer  justice  in 
cases  of  an  international  nature,  and  local  courts. 
At  the  same  time,  a law  school  was  founded  for  the 
purpose  of  training  judges,  public  procurators,  and 
clerks.  This  organisation  existed  on  paper  only : the 
work  of  putting  it  into  practice  was  largely  neg- 
lected. Excepting  the  establishment  of  the  Court 
of  Cassation  and  the  Seoul  Local  Court,  the  other 
courts  mentioned  above  never  came  into  actual  ex- 
istence. The  provincial  governors,  prefects,  super- 
intendents of  treaty  ports,  and  district  magistrates 
continued  to  assume  the  name,  and  discharge  the 

243 


KOREA 


functions,  of  judges  in  administering  justice.  Civil 
cases  were  for  the  most  part  determined  according 
to  the  amount  of  the  bribe  ofiPered  by  plaintiff  or 
defendant,  and  criminal  cases  by  the  arbitrary  will 
of  the  judge.  Until  very  recently  there  was  no  such 
thing  as  a barrister  to  defend  a suspected  criminal; 
a witness  was  in  many  cases  considered  a particeps 
criminis;  and  torture  was  commonly  resorted  to  as  a 
means  of  procuring  evidence  required  by  the  magis- 
trate. Under  such  a state  of  things  the  conviction 
of  innocent  people  and  the  confiscation  of  their  prop- 
erty were  common  occurrences.  Even  in  such  inde- 
pendent tribunals  as  the  Court  of  Cassation  and  the 
Seoul  Local  Court,  judges  and  procurators,  being 
utterly  deficient  in  legal  knowledge  and  training, 
often  delivered  wrong  judgments.  Under  the  treaty 
stipulations  Korean  courts  can  entertain  actions 
brought  by  foreigners  against  the  people  of  the 
country,  but  as  the  judicial  tribunals  are  held  in 
ridicule  by  foreigners,  cases  against  Korean  subjects 
were  almost  sure  to  be  made  international  questions, 
and  thus  carried  into  diplomatic  channels. 

Impressed  by  the  urgent  necessity  of  protecting 
life  and  property,  the  Resident-General,  while  avoid- 
ing any  introduction  of  radical  reforms  in  the  organ- 
isation of  the  Korean  courts,  caused  the  Korean 
Government,  as  stated  in  the  last  report  {i.e.  for 
1906),  to  engage  a Japanese  councillor  and  assistants 
in  the  Department  of  Judicial  Affairs,  who  should 
take  an  active  part  in  the  administration  of  judicial 
business  and  superintend  the  revision  of  laws  and 

244 


THE  JUDICIARY 


ordinances.  In  addition  to  increasing  the  number 
of  judges  and  clerks  in  the  Court  of  Cassation  and 
the  Seoul  Local  Court,  a Japanese  legal  assistant 
was  attached  to  each  of  these  courts,  to  aid  in  the 
proper  administration  of  justice.  A Japanese  legal 
assistant  was  also  appointed  to  each  court  connected 
with  the  offices  of  governors  or  prefectures,  though 
governors  and  prefects  still  retained  their  judicial 
functions  as  heretofore;  and  a Japanese  Assistant 
Police-Adviser  was  stationed  in  each  district  to 
act  as  legal  assistant  in  the  court  of  that  district 
magistrate.  These  appointments  of  Japanese  with 
advisory  powers  to  Korean  courts  produced  some 
good  results.  Thus  the  system  of  torture  was  abol- 
ished; the  arrest  of  a person  on  a civil  charge  was 
suspended;  the  detention  of  alleged  offenders  in  the 
court-house  was  stopped;  and  all  judges  were  strictly 
charged  to  keep  the  records  of  decisions  rendered 
by  them. 

But  so  long  as  the  judicial  branch  of  the  Govern- 
ment was  not  separated  from  the  executive,  the  evils 
and  abuses  of  the  old  system,  which  are  so  deeply 
rooted,  could  not  be  fully  removed. 

By  the  New  Agreement  the  Resident-General 
secured  from  the  Korean  Government  a pledge  to 
separate  the  judiciary  from  the  executive,  as  the 
first  step  in  the  direction  of  a complete  judicial 
reform.  The  Korean  Government  agreed  also  to 
appoint  Japanese  subjects  to  the  following  offices 
in  the  Korean  courts  which  were  to  be  estab- 
lished:— 


245 


KOREA 


1.  A chief  justice,  a chief  procurator,  two  judges, 
and  five  clerks  in  the  Court  of  Cassation. 

2.  A chief  justice,  two  judges,  a chief  procurator, 
an  assistant  procurator,  and  five  clerks  in  each  of 
the  three  Courts  of  Appeal. 

3.  In  the  eight  Local  Courts,  the  chief  justices, 
the  senior  procurators,  thirty-two  judges,  and  eighty 
clerks. 

4.  A judge  and  a clerk  in  each  District  Court. 

Regulations  relating  to  the  organisation  of  the 

law  courts  were  finally  enacted  on  December  27, 
1907.  According  to  these  Regulations  the  country 
is  to  have  125  courts  altogether,  viz:  — A Court  of 
Cassation,  or  Supreme  Court,  in  Seoul;  Courts  of 
Appeal  in  Seoul,  Ping-yang,  and  Taiku,  respec- 
tively; eight  Local  Courts,  one  at  Seoul  and  one  in 
each  of  the  capitals  of  the  other  seven  provinces  of 
the  old  administrative  division;  and  finally,  115  Dis- 
trict Courts  in  the  principal  districts  throughout  the 
country.  Korea  has  adopted  the  so-called  “three 
trial  system,”  which  is  that  in  practice  in  Japan  as 
well  as  in  continental  Europe.  The  District  and 
Local  Courts  are  to  hear  civil  and  criminal  cases  in 
first  instance.  The  former  tribunals  deal  with  minor 
offences  and  with  civil  suits  involving  sums  not 
exceeding  two  hundred  yen,  but  with  the  right  of 
appeal  to  a Local  Court.  A case  originating  in  a 
Local  Court  goes  up  to  a Court  of  Appeal,  while  a 
case  brought  up  from  a District  Court  to  a Local 
Court  must  be  referred  direct  to  the  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion. The  Court  of  Cassation  has  jurisdiction  also 

246 


THE  JUDICIARY 


in  matters  carried  up  from  the  Courts  of  Appeal,  and 
has  sole  jurisdiction  in  first  and  last  instance  over 
all  criminal  cases  brought  against  any  member  of  the 
Imperial  House.  In  the  District  Courts  the  hearing 
is  to  be  before  a single  judge,  but  in  the  other  courts 
the  bench  is  collegiate. 

The  Koreans  had  little  or  no  conception  of  private 
rights  as  these  were  understood  elsewhere  in  the 
Orient.  Thus  such  maladministration  existed  for 
a long  time  that  public  officials  were  accustomed  to 
pay  only  scant  respect  to  the  private  rights  of  the 
people,  and  the  latter,  on  their  side,  dared  not  com- 
plain against  official  extortion.  In  short,  civil  law 
guaranteeing  private  rights  had  practically  no  exist- 
ence. This  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  main  causes 
of  the  people’s  impoverishment.  Although  the  exist- 
ing code  of  criminal  law  was  enacted  as  late  as  April, 
1905,  it  is  still  intolerably  severe  in  the  punishments 
it  prescribes,  nor  is  it  free  from  defects  in  many  other 
ways.  The  death  penalty  is  not  confined  to  wilful 
murder,  but  extends  even  to  the  case  of  thieves  who 
enter  the  Imperial  Palace  or  a temple,  and  treason, 
manslaughter,  and  desecration  of  graves  are  the 
offences  most  commonly  visited  with  capital  punish- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  many  penalties  may  be 
lightened  or  commuted  on  payment  of  money.  More- 
over, in  the  administration  of  these  laws,  so  little 
independence  is  enjoyed  by  the  judiciary  that,  in 
case  of  doubt  as  to  proper  application  of  the  laws, 
the  judges  in  the  Court  of  Cassation  or  any  other 
court  must  consult  the  Minister  of  the  Depart- 

247 


KOREA 


ment  of  Justice  and  decide  in  accordance  with  his 
opinion,  which  is  final. 

Consuls  or  Residents  in  Korea  have  civil  as  well 
as  criminal  jurisdiction  over  the  life  and  property  of 
their  nationals  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  stipulations. 
That  is  to  say,  foreign  offenders  in  criminal  cases, 
using  their  consular  courts,  are  protected  against 
any  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  local  courts  and 
against  the  severe  punishments  of  native  laws,  while 
foreign  defendants  in  civil  cases  are  guaranteed 
against  any  arbitrary  decisions  of  native  courts. 
Subjects  or  citizens  of  the  Treaty  Powers  are  also 
exempted  from  certain  forms  of  taxes,  and  from 
other  administrative  control  by  native  oflBcials. 
Taking  into  consideration  the  historical  conditions 
which  existed  in  Korea  at  the  time  when  the  treaties 
were  concluded,  it  was  quite  natural  that  civilised 
nations  should  have  wished  to  make  their  consular 
jurisdiction  as  extensive  as  possible,  even  though  they 
pushed  it  beyond  the  limits  of  treaty  stipulations. 

Such  privileges  and  exemptions,  however,  are  not 
free  from  disadvantages.  These  were  hardly  noticed 
during  the  period  when  the  number  of  foreign  resi- 
dents was  small,  and  their  requirements  were  rela- 
tively simple;  whereas  the  importance  of  maintaining 
adequate  safeguards  against  the  arbitrary  proceedings 
of  the  native  Government  was  very  palpable.  But 
with  the  progressive  tide  of  reforms,  the  conditions 
of  Korean  life  are  changing  year  by  year.  Improved 
methods  of  government,  central  and  local,  are  grad- 
ually taking  root  throughout  the  country;  modern 

248 


THE  JUDICIARY 


law  courts,  with  competent  Japanese  judges  and 
procurators  associated,  are  steadily  replacing  the 
old  tribunals.  It  is  a recognised  fact  that  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Resident-General,  with  the 
co-operation  of  Japanese  subjects  who  have  been 
recommended  for  their  special  fitness,  the  Korean 
Administration  is  changing  the  situation  heretofore 
existing.  The  importance  of  maintaining  consular 
jurisdiction  has  thus  greatly  diminished;  and  it  is 
now  rather  the  case  that  certain  inconveniences  re- 
sulting from  its  continuance  are  becoming  palpable. 

Many  missionaries,  some  of  them  helping  to  main- 
tain schools  and  hospitals,  are  residing  in  towns  and 
villages  in  the  interior  quite  outside  treaty  limits; 
many  hundreds  of  miners  — Americans,  Chinese, 
and  Japanese  — are  employed  in  mines;  several 
foreigners  now  own  real  estate  in  places  even  outside 
treaty  limits;  more  particularly,  a number  of  Jap- 
anese and  Chinese  are  engaging  in  agriculture  in  the 
interior  of  the  country.  So  soon,  however,  as  the 
Korean  Government  ceases  to  be  arbitrary,  law- 
abiding  subjects  and  citizens  of  foreign  nations 
should  desiderate  its  positive  protection  in  their 
activities,  in  lieu  of  the  purely  negative  preventive 
system  now  prevailing.  Furthermore,  the  differ- 
ences of  procedure  observed  by  different  nation- 
alities in  their  Consular  courts  discourage  native  as 
well  as  foreign  plaintiffs  from  having  recourse  to  the 
laws  administered  there.  Again,  in  appeal  cases, 
the  inconvenience  of  recourse  to  appeal  courts  con- 
stitutes a similar  discouragement,  seeing  that  an 

249 


KOREA 


appeal  case  under  British  or  American  consular 
jurisdiction  in  Korea  must  be  carried  to  Shanghai, 
and,  in  the  case  of  the  French  tribunals,  to  Saigon. 

The  Japanese  Government,  since  the  reform  of  the 
Korean  Police  organisation  in  September,  1907,  has 
relied  upon  the  Korean  Police  force,  and  abolished  its 
own,  hitherto  maintained  in  the  former  Consulates 
and  subsequent  Residencies.  As  Japan  has  pre- 
dominating interests  in  Korea,  she  should  take  the 
lead  in  withdrawing  her  Consular  jurisdiction.  The 
United  States,  at  the  very  outset  of  her  entrance  into 
treaty  relations  with  Korea,  in  May,  1882,  generously 
encouraged  the  Korean  Government  by  promising 
to  withdraw  her  Consular  jurisdiction  under  the 
following  stipulations:  — 

“It  is,  however,  mutually  agreed  between  the 
High  Contracting  Powers,  that  whenever  the  King 
of  Chosen  shall  have  so  far  modified  and  reformed 
the  statutes  and  judicial  procedure  of  his  kingdom 
that,  in  the  judgment  of  the  United  States,  they 
conform  to  the  laws  and  courts  in  the  United  States, 
the  right  of  extraterritorial  jurisdiction  of  the  United 
States’  citizens  in  Chosen  shall  be  abandoned,  and 
thereafter  United  States  citizens,  when  within  the 
limits  of  the  kingdom  of  Chosen,  shall  be  subject  to 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  native  authorities.” 

A similar  provision  is  made  by  treaty,  declaration, 
or  protocol  with  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
Italy,  Belgium,  Austria,  Hungary  and  Denmark. 

Prison  administration  as  heretofore  carried  out  in 
Korea  is  a matter  almost  too  unsavoury  to  describe, 

250 


THE  JUDICIARY 

The  most  common  forms  of  punishment  were  beat- 
ing, imprisonment,  and  confinement  in  the  stocks. 
The  Penal  Code  is  full  of  directions  for  administer- 
ing floggings,  which  were  often  so  severe  as  to  render 
the  victim  a cripple  for  life,  if  he  did  not  die  under 
the  infliction.  Major  offences,  even  robbery,  are 
for  the  most  part  regarded  as  punishable  by  death, 
and  although  capital  punishment,  which  formerly 
meant  decapitation,  has  recently  been  replaced  by 
hanging,  yet  even  this  latter  form  of  execution  has 
been  most  cruelly  carried  out,  being  in  fact  slow 
strangulation,  so  that  the  victim  is  in  pain  for  half- 
an-hour  or  more.  Women  convicted  of  major  crimes 
were  often  executed  by  poisons  calculated  to  inflict 
terrible  agony  before  death  ensued.  Although  regu- 
lations for  prison  administration  more  or  less  on  the 
basis  of  modern  principles  were  enacted  in  January, 
1898,  yet  their  enforcement  was  not  separated  from 
the  functions  of  the  ordinary  executive,  being  left 
under  the  control  of  the  Inspector  General  of  Police 
in  Seoul  and  of  the  Provincial  Governors  in  the  prov- 
inces. Consequently,  prison  administration,  instead 
of  aiming  at  the  punishment  of  criminals  in  the 
interest  of  public  safety,  was  often  prostituted  to 
private  ends,  so  that  innocent  people  were  frequently 
thrown  into  jail  simply  at  the  dictates  of  political  or 
personal  vengeance.  The  new  regulations  provided 
that  the  treatment  of  prisoners  awaiting  trial  should 
be  differentiated  from  that  of  those  already  convicted. 
But  in  practice  no  such  discrimination  was  made. 
Again,  injustice  in  the  treatment  of  convicts  of  the 

251. 


KOREA 


lower  classes  was  very  marked,  so  that  while  an 
offender  of  high  official  rank  or  the  better  class  of 
civilians  could  have  the  company  of  his  family  in 
the  prison  yard  and  could  order  any  luxury  in  the 
way  of  food  or  bedding,  a convict  of  the  poorer  class 
could  hardly  obtain  two  meals  a day,  and  often  died 
of  actual  starvation.  As  to  sanitary  measures, 
nothing  was  provided.  Most  of  the  prison  build- 
ings in  the  provinces  were  mere  shelters,  often  with 
earth  floors.  In  winter,  when  the  thermometer 
fell  below  zero,  there  were  many  cases  of  death  from 
cold.  In  hot  summers,  on  the  other  hand,  prisoners 
often  fell  victims  to  epidemic  diseases.  Even  the 
prison  compound  in  Seoul,  which  was  established  in 
1902,  had  no  separate  building  for  the  sick. 

When  judicial  reforms  were  commenced  in  1906 
by  introducing  Japanese  legal  councillors  in  the 
various  courts,  the  Resident-General  caused  the 
advisory  police  inspectors  attached  to  the  provincial 
government  offices  to  improve  the  prison  adminis- 
tration as  far  as  circumstances  might  permit.  Efforts 
were  made  to  differentiate  the  treatment  of  prisoners 
awaiting  trial  from  that  of  convicts;  three  regular 
meals  a day  were  given  to  all  prisoners ; rigorous  sani- 
tary measures  were  prescribed  for  times  of  epidemic 
disease;  special  rooms  were  to  be  set  apart  for  the 
sick;  outdoor  work,  such  as  street  cleaning,  was  intro- 
duced to  give  air  and  exercise  to  the  prisoners.  For 
moral  purposes,  religious  teaching  was  to  be  given  to 
the  prisoners  and  convicts  on  Sundays  by  Christian 
teachers,  and,  on  Wednesdays,  by  Buddhists. 

252 


CHAPTER  XX 

TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY^ 


IN  1908  Korea’s  commerce  suffered  because  of 
the  non-exportation  of  ginseng  (the  shipments 
of  which  amounted  to  only  $880  in  compar- 
ison with  $601,237  in  1907),  a large  rice  crop  in 
Japan,  and  an  abundant  bean  crop  in  Manchuria. 
Rice  and  beans  are  Korea’s  chief  articles  of  export. 
The  insurrection  disturbed  business  in  some  parts  of 
the  Kingdom,  but  the  principal  reasons  for  the  trade 
depression  are  the  three  just  stated.  However,  the 
year  1908  witnessed  the  inauguration  of  a vigorous 
mining  movement  on  the  part  of  Americans,  which 
will  show  to  the  world  that  Korea  possesses  mineral 
wealth  of  great  value. 

For  over  ten  years  a single  group  of  mines,  the 
first  to  be  opened  up  in  the  country  by  foreigners 
(Americans),  has  stood  as  the  only  successful 
mining  venture  in  Korea  to  be  operated  under 
modern  methods.  This  group  has  produced  approxi- 
mately $12,000,000  in  gold  bullion.  The  output  is 
over  $100,000  per  month.  On  this  property  almost 
$1,250,000  has  been  expended  in  equipment,  the 
machinery  being  largely  of  American  manufacture. 
Between  seventy  and  eighty  American  miners  are 
employed  and  5,000  Korean  laborers,  and  about 

* By  Consul-General  Thomas  Sammons,  Seoul. 

253 


KOREA 


1,000  tons  of  ore,  averaging  $5  per  ton,  are  crushed 
and  treated  daily.  The  fact  that  this  mine,  now  at 
a depth  of  900  or  1,000  feet,  continues  to  increase 
in  value  is  confirmation  of  the  possibilities  of  Korea’s 
mineral  resources. 

American  Mining  Interests  Quadrupled 

American  mining  interests  in  Korea  quadrupled 
during  1908,  copper  (Kapsan),  gold,  (Suan),  and 
graphite  (Kang  Neung)  properties  being  among  those 
added.  In  addition  to  these  another  gold  quartz 
property  (Sak  Ju  mines),  located  near  the  Ya-lu 
River,  is  to  pass  to  American  control,  and  Amer- 
icans have  also  secured  a half  interest  in  the  famous 
Ham  Heung  Province  placer  mines  at  ]\Ieung  Tai 
Dong,  situated  northwest  of  Wonsan  (Gensan),  on 
the  east  coast  of  Korea.  At  Meung  Tai  Dong  nug- 
gets are  found,  but  this  is  the  only  extensive  placer 
property  in  Korea  that  resembles  the  Klondike  dis- 
trict deposits  of  coarse  gold  and  nuggets.  The  ore 
values  uncovered  on  one  of  these  properties,  a large 
gold  quartz  area  known  as  the  Suan  mines  (originally 
granted  to  British  subjects,  but  in  which  Americans 
were  largely  interested  and  which  is  now  leased  to 
Americans),  have  warranted  the  purchase  of  a com- 
plete milling  plant.  The  first  consignment  of  twenty 
stamps  is  being  installed.  Supplies  of  this  nature 
are  purchased  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  to  this 
class  of  American  products  that  Korea  offers  a most 
inviting  new  market. 

Next  to  the  American  interest  in  mining  in  Korea, 

254 


TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY 


the  British  have  shown  the  greatest  activity.  Thus 
far,  however,  Americans  are  interested  to  a consid- 
erable extent  in  all  British  mining  exploitation  in 
Korea.  The  most  important  British  acquisition 
during  1908  was  the  taking  over,  under  a working 
option,  of  the  gold  quartz  and  placer  properties 
situated  a short  distance  south  of  Seoul  and  known 
as  the  Chiksan  mines.  Indeed,  it  would  seem  that 
London  capital  heretofore  largely  occupied  in  Aus- 
tralia and  South  Africa  is  turning  to  Korea  as  the 
most  promising  field  to  be  found  in  the  world  at 
the  present  time. 

While  the  French  mining  concession  as  recently 
granted  has  not  proven  satisfactory,  the  Italian 
concession  now  being  exploited,  located  near  the 
Kapsan  copper  mines,  in  northern  Korea,  promises 
to  prove  rich  in  copper  deposits.  The  German  con- 
cession has  as  yet  failed  to  show  high  values  on  any 
large  scale. 

Customs  Duties  Removed  — Agriculture 

In  connection  with  the  adjustment  of  American 
mining  concessionary  problems  during  1908,  the 
Japanese  Protectorate,  acting  for  the  Korean  Gov- 
ernment and  under  the  personal  direction  of  Prince 
Ito,  practically  did  away  with  all  export  duties  on 
mine  products  and  removed  all  import  duty  on  sup- 
plies used  in  the  operation  of  mines  in  Korea.  This, 
together  with  such  modifications  in  the  mining  laws 
as  are  calculated  to  strengthen  title  and  facilitate 
transfer,  has  served  to  stimulate  the  mining  industry, 

255 


KOREA 


and,  combined  with  exceptionally  valuable  discov- 
eries and  new  mining  concessions  as  adjusted  during 
1908,  has  offered  such  practical  inducements  that 
the  year  will  mark  the  turning  point  in  Korea’s 
industrial  development.  Thus,  while  Korea  has 
always  been  primarily  an  agricultural  country,  its 
mineral  wealth  is  becoming  of  great  importance,  and 
as  iron  mines  and  coal  deposits  are  being  developed 
the  exploitation  of  its  mineral  resources  may  reason- 
ably be  expected  to  continue. 

In  the  meantime  the  Korean-Japanese  movement, 
having  for  its  object  the  taking  over  of  extensive  areas 
of  fertile  Government  land  in  Korea  and  the  utilisa- 
tion of  tracts  commonly  designated  as  waste  lands, 
is  calculated  to  stimulate  agricultural  and  industrial 
pursuits.  This  movement  w’ill  at  the  same  time 
bring  large  numbers  of  Japanese  farmers  to  Korea, 
and  it  is  predicted  that  the  “Hermit  Kingdom”  will 
ultimately  be  able  to  export,  particularly  coastwise, 
large  quantities  of  farm  produce  as  w'ell  as  of 
manufactured  goods,  fruits,  and  vegetables. 

Agricultural  experiment  stations  have  demon- 
strated that  Korea  is  well  adapted  to  varied  horti- 
cultural and  agricultural  pursuits.  The  culture  of 
grapes  on  the  lower  half  of  the  peninsula  promises  to 
develop  into  an  important  industry,  and  the  possi- 
bilities of  silk  culture  are  very  great.  In  rice,  silk, 
cotton,  cattle,  tobacco,  matting,  and  grass  cloth 
Korea,  with  but  slight  systematic  attention  to  their 
culture,  care,  and  manufacture,  would  become  of 
much  consequence  to  the  crop-production  possibili- 

256 


TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY 


ties  of  the  Far  East.  Already  Korea  produces  some 
of  the  best  varieties  of  rice  in  the  world. 

There  are  waste-land  areas  in  Korea  that  could 
doubtless  be  profitably  cultivated  under  the  dry- 
farming process.  Rice  lands  now  worked  only  as 
the  result  of  irrigation  could  also  be  worked  under 
dry-farming  methods  should  this  new  departure  be 
introduced.  The  average  rainfall  is  39.4  inches, 
but  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  forests  have  been 
cut  away,  as  in  many  other  parts  of  the  Far  East, 
destructive  floods  usually  follow  the  heavy  rains 
of  July  and  August  and  the  water  is  quickly  car- 
ried off. 

Korea  possesses  large  areas  of  uplands  suitable  for 
cattle  raising,  and  this  industry,  which  is  already 
receiving  considerable  attention,  could  be  developed 
rapidly  if  cattle  diseases  were  eradicated.  About 
$300,000  worth  of  live  stock  was  exported  in  1908 
and  $25,000  worth  of  hides  is  exported  annually. 
The  results  of  experimenting  with  American  cotton 
in  Korea  are  highly  satisfactory.  The  crop  produced 
is  double  that  of  native  cotton  in  quantity,  the 
expense  of  raising  it  is  fifty  per  cent,  less,  and  the 
prices  offered  for  the  product  are  much  higher  than 
those  for  the  Korean  variety. 

Foreign  Trade 

The  total  commerce  in  1908  amounted  to  ^31,843,- 
557,  and  of  this  sum  $4,273,377  represented  specie 
and  bullion.  This  aggregate  is  $1,390,195  less  than 
that  in  1907.  The  balance  of  trade  was  against 

257 


KOREA 


Korea,  the  merchandise  imports  exceeding  the  exports 
in  1908  by  $13,455,669.  In  1907  this  excess  of 
incoming  trade  was  $11,524,085.  Exports  of  gold 
and  silver  coin  and  bullion  exceeded  the  imports, 
however,  by  $749,408  in  1908  and  by  $2,006,636 
in  1907.  The  principal  articles  of  merchandise 
exported  from  Korea  during  1907  and  1908,  respec- 
tively, are  shown  in  the  following  comparative 
statement : 


Articles. 

1907. 

1908. 

Artides. 

1907. 

1908. 

$388,722 

$358,527 

$338,264 

$259,468 

Barley  and 

Ore: 

228,340 

83,377 

Gold 

22,451 

Beans,  yellow 

Iron  and 

1,967,826 

1,705,821 

87  686 

Copper,  manu- 

Paper 

32,668 

34,225 

factures  of  • • 

30,054 

31,424 

Rice 

3,779,253 

3,240,534 

Cotton,  raw  and 

Seaweed 

6,935 

38,306 

ginned 

81,587 

51,683 

Timber  and 

128  035 

89,312 

72,072 

Fish 

243,019 

119,335 

Ginseng  

601,237 

880 

The  great  decline  in  exports  of  ginseng  from 
$601,237  in  1907  to  the  insignificant  amount  of 
$880  in  1908  caused  a heavy  decrease  in  the  total 
of  export  trade,  and  there  were  additional  losses  of 
$538,719  in  rice  and  $262,005  in  beans. 

While  the  export  trade  suffered,  the  total  imports 
for  the  year  showed  a gratifying  increase.  The 
imports  during  1907  and  1908  were  divided  among 
the  various  countries  as  follows: 

2o8 


TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY 


Country. 

United  States 

Austria 

Belgium  . . • ■ 


1907. 

$1,647,779 

12,677 


British  India 

China  

Dutch  Indies 

France  

Germany  ■ . • 

Hawaii 

Hongkong  . . 


2,232,848 

9,139 


33,463 


1908. 


$2,096,959 

11,948 

33,321 

11,202 

2,441,198 

63,210 

57,084 

197,347 

11,637 

32,557 


Country. 


Japan  

Philippine 
Islands  ■ . ■ 

Russia 

Russia, 
Asiatic  . . . 
Switzerland  ■ 
Turkey  . . . . 
United 
Kingdom  . 


1907. 

$13,681,936 

19,829 

321,657 


2,758,798 


1908. 


$12,021,454 

33,922 

10,516 

25,839 

25,010 

27,581 

3,390,242 


Other  coun- 


tries   

Total  . . 


‘20,718,126 


21,898 

20,512,925 


‘The  figures  for  1907  include  $693,124  for  articles  for  military  use  and 
exclude  those  for  re-export. 


Trade  with  the  United  States 

As  appears  in  the  foregoing  table,  the  United 
States,  China,  Japan,  and  the  United  Kingdom 
practically  control  the  import  trade  of  Korea.  The 
effort  to  introduce  cheap  oils  into  the  country  has 
not  proven  successful,  and  American  oils  continue 
to  hold  the  bulk  of  the  trade,  notwithstanding  that 
other  oils  have  recently  been  placed  with  Korean 
merchants  on  a credit  basis.  In  the  kerosene  oil 
business,  as  in  the  cigarette  trade,  personal  repre- 
sentation and  the  carrying  of  goods  in  stock  ready 
for  local  demands  solve  the  problem  of  commercial 
expansion,  as  a rule. 

Of  approximately  735,000,000  cigarettes  consumed 
annually  in  Korea  a large  number  contain,  wholly  or 
in  part,  American  tobacco.  The  Japanese  tobacco 

259 


KOREA 


monopoly  has  only  slightly  over  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
total  trade  in  this  line,  with  British-American  inter- 
ests holding  practically  the  balance  of  the  business. 
The  latter  have  opened  a factory  in  Korea.  In  rail- 
way supplies  America  has  practically  all  of  the  trade, 
the  railways  of  Korea  being  provided  with  American 
locomotives  and  rails.  About  fifty  per  cent,  of  all 
cars  and  fixtures  are  also  of  American  manufacture. 

American  flour  is  well  established  in  Korea  and 
larger  quantities  may  be  sold  from  year  to  year. 
This  will  doubtless  be  the  case,  too,  with  school 
furniture  and  supplies,  heating  stoves,  and  house- 
hold necessities  generally.  Because  of  bad  roads  or 
no  roads  at  all  automobiles  are  not  in  demand,  but 
there  may  be  a limited  market  for  motor  boats  as 
the  mining  and  other  industries  are  developed. 

The  development  of  mines  that  are  near  tide 
water  will  open  up  a market  for  large  quantities 
of  heavy  mining  timber,  and  for  a considerable 
period,  if  not  permanently,  it  is  probable  that  the 
Pacific  coast  of  America  will  be  able  to  supply  this 
demand  as  against  the  products  of  the  Ya-lu  River 
timber  districts,  either  in  Korea  or  Manchuria. 
The  Kang  Neung  graphite  mines,  the  Chiksan  gold 
mines,  and  the  Sak  Ju  mines  are  all  near  tide  water. 
The  operation  of  the  Kapsan  copper  mines  on  a 
large  scale  will  require  a railway  to  the  sea,  and  by 
this  method  supplies  may  be  hauled  into  the  interior. 

The  principal  articles  imported  from  the  United 
States,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippine  Islands  during 
1908  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

260 


TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY 


Articles. 

Value. 

Articles. 

Value. 

Beer,  porter,  and  stout. . . . 

$1,312 

Iron  and  steel,  manufac- 

Candles 

10,238 

tures  of  — Cont’d. 

Cigarettes 

53,094 

Locomotives  and  fixtures 

$171,735 

Cotton,  manufactures  of: 

Nails 

15,043 

19,571 

3,695 

3,183 

414,049 

Shirting,  grey  and  white 

Rails 

13,694 

16,340 

186,408 

684,995 

Instruments,  telegraph  and 

Porcelain  and  earthenware 

292 

telephone,  etc 

5,918 

Sugar,  brown  and  refined  ■ 

15,013 

Iron  and  steel,  manufac- 

All  other  articles 

474,609 

tures  of: 

7,775 

2,096,959 

Korean  exports  to  the  United  States  consist  largely 
of  concentrates,  curios,  brass  ware,  and  a few  tiger, 
leopard,  and  sable  skins.  With  the  development  of 
the  mineral  resources  of  the  country,  shipments  of 
mine  products  will  increase,  and  efforts  made  during 
the  past  year  by  American  concerns  warrant  the 
belief  that  larger  quantities  of  Korean  brass  ware 
will  find  a ready  market  in  the  United  States. 

Trade  with  Other  Foreign  Countries 

Although  Korea  is  able  to  manufacture  grass  cloth 
from  native  materials,  and  does,  in  fact,  manufac- 
ture large  quantities,  it  imported  from  China  in  1908 
approximately  $800,000  worth  of  this  fabric  because 
China  can  sell  Korea  grass  cloth  more  cheaply  than 
Korea,  with  primitive  methods,  can  manufacture  it. 
That  country  is  also  sending  large  quantities  of  silk 
to  Korea,  this  trading  being  stimulated  during  1908 

261 


KOREA 


by  the  depreciation  of  silver.  The  establishment  of 
many  newspapers  throughout  the  Kingdom  has 
greatly  increased  the  sales  of  paper,  and  the  market 
shows  an  increasing  demand  for  sugar,  flour,  cotton 
wadding,  kerosene  oil,  and  matches.  Grey  shirting 
and  sheeting  are  not  in  active  demand  at  present. 
White  shirting  from  Shanghai  successfully  competes 
with  Japanese  manufactures.  The  principal  articles 
imported  from  Japan,  China,  and  the  United  King- 
dom, respectively,  during  1908  are  shown  in  the 
following  table: 


Articles. 


Cigarettes 

Coal 

Cotton,  and  manufactures  of: 

Raw,  and  wadding 

Satins 

Sheetings  and  shirtings 

Tissues,  other 

Yarns 

Flour,  wheat 

Iron  and  steel,  manufactures  of: 

Galvanised  sheets 

Locomotives  and  fixtures  . . • • 

Nails 

Pipes  and  tubes 

Rails 

Lumber  and  planks 

Oil,  kerosene 

Salt 

Silk  gauzes 

Sugar,  brown  and  refined 

All  other  articles 

Total 


Japan. 

China. 

United 

Kingdnm. 

$307,645 

$88,000 

$49,916 

684  645 

644 

149,222 

46,385 

5,600 

6,953 

194,363 

1,085,731 

3,058 

1,845,520 

812,842 

1,000,899 

10,779 

136 

5,737 

257 

7 

11,107 

101,407 

19,956 

13,553 

5,256 

24,951 

964 

290,892 

11,143 

8,673 

584,175 

235,178 

562 

74,230 

144,293 

211 

281,127 

336,542 

3,974 

1,555 

6,924,987 

1,620,648 

859,269 

12,021,454 

2,441,198 

3,390,242 

262 


TRADE  CONDITIONS  TO-DAY 


Patent  and  Trade-Mark  Regulations 

The  Japanese  system  for  the  protection  of  trade- 
marks, designs,  and  patents  was  extended  to  Korea 
during  1908,  to  be  effective  after  August  16.  Under 
the  agreement  bringing  about  this  new  arrangement 
it  is  provided  that  Korean  and  Japanese  subjects 
and  American  citizens  possessing  patent,  design, 
or  trade-mark  rights  obtained  and  protected  in  the 
United  States  upon  application  shall  receive  the 
same  rights  and  similar  protection  in  Korea,  of 
the  same  duration  as  in  America,  provided  that  the 
application  is  made  within  one  year  after  date  on 
which  the  new  regulations  went  into  effect.  Patent, 
design,  and  trade-mark  rights  obtained  in  Japan  by 
American  citizens  prior  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
new  regulations  will  be  deemed  to  have  acquired 
protection  in  Korea  for  an  equal  period.  Goods  held 
in  violation  of  patent  rights  thus  obtained  must  be 
sold  within  six  months  after  the  regulation  becomes 
effective. 

It  is  provided  that  the  terms  for  the  exclusive  use 
of  patent,  design,  and  trade-mark  rights,  obtained 
otherwise  than  as  above  described,  shall  be  fifteen, 
ten,  and  twenty  years,  respectively.  The  fees  for 
application  are  $2.49  for  patents,  $4.98  for  designs, 
and  $1.49  for  trade-marks.  The  yearly  fee  for  hold- 
ing a patent  right  is  $4.98,  increased  by  $2.49  each 
three  years.  The  annual  fee  for  a design  right  is 
$1.49  for  the  first  four  years,  $2.49  for  the  next  three 
years,  and  $3.48  for  the  last  three  years.  There  is 

263 


KOREA 


an  annual  fee  of  $14,94  for  a trade-mark  right,  to 
be  charged  for  each  class  of  goods  upon  which  it  is 
used. 

It  is  evident  from  the  movement  of  freight  traflBc 
in  Korea  that  the  port  of  Fusan,  at  the  southern  end 
of  the  peninsula,  is  destined  gradually  to  divide 
honours  with  the  port  of  Chemulpo  on  the  western 
coast  near  Seoul.  This  is  partially  due  to  the  falling 
off  of  shipping  facilities  with  China  and  a steady 
increase  in  trade  accommodations  at  the  ports 
nearest  Japan. 

Declared  Exports  to  the  United  States 

The  declared  value  of  exports  from  Korea  to  the 
United  States  in  the  years  1907  and  1908,  respec- 
tively, was  as  follows: 


Articles. 

1907. 

1908. 

Articles. 

1907. 

1906. 

8373 

$61 

$214 

Brass  ware 

242 

2,129 

Skins,  leopard,  bear. 

Chests,  cabinets,  and 

and  sable 

$360 

208 

cash  boxes 

518 

408 

16,322 

28,364 

Concentrates  and  slag, 

gold 

11,126 

23,237 

Returned  American 

Curios 

802 

1,311 

1 

ftAQ 

Effects,  personal  and 

Grand  total 

16,519 

29,032 

household 

2,862 

653 

30 

Ginseng 

39 

113 

264 


CHAPTER  XXI 


MARITIME  UNDERTAKINGS 

IN  October,  1905,  the  Financial  Adviser  was 
appointed  to  succeed  ex-oficio  Mr.  Brown, 
Chief  Commissioner  of  the  Korean  Imperial 
Customs.  Among  many  works  of  progress  under- 
taken by  the  customs  administration,  the  extension 
of  the  compounds,  the  improvement  of  harbours, 
and  the  enlarged  provision  of  light-house  facilities 
are  the  most  noticeable.  The  growing  foreign  trade, 
especially  its  sudden  increase  since  the  last  war, 
necessitated  improvements  at  the  Korean  open 
ports.  The  Government  consequently  decided  to 
expend  upon  the  extension  of  all  Customs  com- 
pounds and  the  erection  of  light-houses  several 
million  yen,  which  had  been  previously  set  apart 
as  a special  fund  out  of  the  Customs  receipts. 

In  March,  1906,  a “Department  of  Customs  mari- 
time undertakings”  with  a Light-House  Bureau 
was  established  at  Seoul  under  the  control  of  the 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Customs.  Its  engineering  staflF 
is  composed  of  several  competent  Japanese  experts. 
Branch  offices  have  been  opened  at  the  ports  of 
Chemulpo,  Fusan,  Wonsan,  Mok-po,  and  Chin- 
nampo,  to  take  charge  of  the  reclamation  works 
necessary  for  the  Customs  compounds,  as  well 

265 


KOREA 


as  to  oversee  the  construction  of  oflBce  buildings, 
warehouses  and  sheds.  Moreover,  the  work  of 
providing  Customs  compounds  at  Shin-Wiju,  and 
Chyong-jin  was  commenced  in  the  fiscal  year  1907. 

The  reclamation  works  in  Chemulpo  and  Fusan 
are  particularly  extensive,  the  intention  being  that 
these  harbours  may  offer  full  facilities  for  connecting 
land  and  water  traffic.  The  areas  reclaimed  at 
Chemulpo  and  Fusan  are  to  be  17,978  (15  acres) 
and  12,164  tsuho  (10  acres),  respectively,  the  former 
requiring  385  hen  (770  yards)  of  retaining  wall  and 
the  latter  29  hen  (590  yards).  The  Chemulpo  har- 
bour is  to  have  a main  landing  pier  beside  four  piers 
for  small  cargo  steamers  and  large  junks;  and  the 
Customs  compound  at  F usan  is  to  have  a large  wharf 
for  ocean  steamers,  on  which  wharf  five  sheds  will  be 
built  and  connected  with  the  railway,  while  there 
will  also  be  piers  for  lighters  and  fishing-boats.  In 
the  basin  for  fishing-boats  at  Fusan  provision  will 
be  made  for  cold-storage  and  other  sheds;  while  in 
the  Chemulpo  compound  there  will  be  three  ware- 
houses and  six  sheds,  all  connected  with  the  railway. 
Five  improved  cranes  are  to  be  erected  in  the  Cus- 
toms compounds  at  both  Chemulpo  and  Fusan. 
With  reference  to  quarantine,  an  inspection  station 
is  to  be  built  on  an  island  near  the  harbours  of  Che- 
mulpo, Fusan,  and  Wonsan  respectively,  and  each 
station  will  include  a quarantine  office,  a disinfecting 
chamber  and  a hospital  ward. 

When  this  work  of  extending  the  Customs  premises 
is  fully  completed,  much  greater  facilities  will  be 

266 


afforded  for  foreign  trade  in  Korea.  Especially  the 
harbours  of  Chemulpo  and  Fusan,  having  land  and 
water  communications,  will  undoubtedly  be  among 
the  best  in  the  Orient. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  Korean  coasts  are 
exceedingly  unsafe  for  navigation,  the  Korean  Gov- 
ernment paid  little  attention  to  the  erection  of  light- 
houses until  1901,  when  the  Japanese  Minister  at 
Seoul  called  the  attention  of  the  Korean  Government 
to  article  31  of  the  trade  regulations  concluded  in 
1883  between  Japan  and  Korea,  by  which  it  is  stip- 
ulated that  “the  Korean  Government  shall  improve 
each  commercial  harbour  and  establish  light-houses 
and  buoys  in  connection  therewith.”  In  conse- 
quence of  this  representation,  Mr.  Brown,  Commis- 
sioner of  Customs,  agreed  to  make  a beginning  by 
allotting  245,000  yen  out  of  the  funds  of  the  Customs 
revenue  for  survey  purposes  and  for  the  construction 
of  light-houses.  The  services  of  several  Japanese 
experts  were  obtained,  and,  later  on,  an  English 
engineer,  Mr.  Harding,  was  engaged  for  the  work. 
Thus  the  construction  of  five  light-houses  on  islands 
in  the  vicinity  of  Chemulpo  harbour  was  completed 
by  1903.  During  the  recent  war,  the  Japanese 
Military  Staff  established  light-houses  and  placed 
beacons  and  buoys  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ya-lu  River, 
and  on  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  of  the 
peninsula. 

Side  by  side  with  the  work  of  extending  the  Cus- 
toms compounds,  the  Korean  Government  decided, 
in  March,  1906,  to  make  considerable  improvements 

267 


KOREA 


in  light-house  facilities  along  the  several  water- 
routes,  and  to  allot  for  that  purpose  one  million  and 
a quarter  yen  out  of  the  Customs  revenue.  The 
Bureau  of  Light-Houses,  after  careful  survey,  mapped 
Korean  waters  into  ten  navigation  lines,  and  planned 
to  establish  thirty-five  light-houses,  five  light-buoys, 
three  beacons,  fifty  buoys,  and  eleven  fog-signals, 
making  194  in  all.  This  plan,  however,  was  subse- 
quently modified  so  that  the  numbers  now  stand  as 
follow:  — Fifty  light-houses,  five  light-buoys,  five 
beacons,  fifty-four  buoys,  and  sixteen  fog-signals, 
making  130  in  all,  for  which  1,266,272  yen  is  to  be 
expended  during  five  years  beginning  with  1906. 


268 


CHAPTER  XXII 


RAILROADS,  TELEGRAPHS  AND 
TELEPHONES 

Although  the  Koreans  boast  an  ancient 
civilisation  of  their  own,  the  country  hither- 
to possessed  hardly  any  public  roads,  except 
the  so-called  “grand  road”  from  Seoul  to  the  Chinese 
border,  and  a few  roads  between  the  capital  and  some 
provincial  cities.  The  Government  used  to  distrib- 
ute a certain  amount  of  money  among  the  various 
districts  for  purposes  of  road  repair.  Not  only  was 
this  sum,  even  in  its  integrity,  quite  inadequate 
to  maintain  the  roads,  but  three-fourths  of  it  went 
into  the  pockets  of  local  magistrates,  and  prac- 
tically nothing  was  done  for  the  roads.  Even  stone 
bridges  were  suffered  to  lie  broken,  and  the  road-beds 
were  gradually  beaten  down  below  the  level  of  the 
adjacent  ground.  Thus  in  time  of  rain  the  roads 
became  almost  impassable. 

During  the  China-Japan  War,  the  Seoul-Chemulpo 
highway  was  constructed  by  the  Japanese  army,  and 
two  trunk  roads  from  Seoul  to  Wonsan  and  Wiju 
respectively  were  similarly  made  by  the  Japanese 
troops  during  the  war  with  Russia. 

In  order  to  facilitate  transportation,  the  Korean 
Government  (as  stated  in  the  Report  for  1906) 

269 


KOREA 


allotted  1,500,000  yen  out  of  the  Loan  for  Public 
Undertakings  to  construct  four  roads;  namely,  one 
between  Chinnampo  and  Ping-yang;  another  from 
Tai-ku  to  Ya-nil  Bay,  by  way  of  Kyang-ju;  a third 
from  Yon-san-kang  to  Mok-po;  and  a fourth  from 
Keun-kang  to  Kunsan.  These  roads  are  to  connect 
the  principal  open  ports  with  the  railway  centres 
and  agricultural  districts.  Surveys  of  the  routes 
were  commenced  in  August,  1906,  and  completed 
by  December  of  that  year,  the  total  length  being 
301.5  kilometres.  The  width  of  the  Tai-ku-Ya-nil 
and  Yon-san-kang-Mok-po  roads  is  to  be  six  metres. 
But  the  Chinnampo-Ping-yang  and  Keun-kang- 
Kun-san  width  is  to  be  seven  metres,  the  idea 
being  that  these  roads  may  be  used  for  car  lines 
hereafter.  The  appropriation  of  lands  for  the  con- 
struction of  these  roads  occupied  almost  a year 
(November,  1906-November,  1907)  and  the  market 
price  was  paid,  according  to  the  Land  Appropria- 
tion Law.  Many  of  the  Japanese  owners  gave  their 
land  gratis;  an  example  followed  to  some  extent 
by  the  Koreans.  The  actual  work  of  construction 
was  commenced  in  May,  1907,  and  63.3  kilometres 
had  been  finished  by  the  end  of  December  in  this 
year. 

As  a secondary  stage  of  communications  construc- 
tion, seven  other  roads  are  planned  for  different 
provinces.  These  highways  are  expected  to  serve 
as  models  for  similar  work  undertaken  in  future  by 
local  governments  or  municipalities. 

By  the  Agreement  concluded  on  April  1,  1905,  the 

270 


Korean  Government  transferred  to  the  Imperial  Jap- 
anese Government  “control  and  administration  of 
the  post,  telegraph,  and  telephone  services  in  Korea 
(except  the  telephone  service  exclusively  pertaining 
to  the  Department  of  the  Imperial  Household).” 
Nevertheless  the  opening  of  the  Japanese  postal 
service  in  Korea  dated  from  November  1,  1876, 
several  months  after  the  opening  of  the  port  of  Fusan. 
Later  on,  Japanese  post-offices  were  opened  in  Seoul 
and  each  treaty  port.  During  the  Russo-Japanese 
War  postal  services  were  also  conducted  by  the 
Japanese  in  important  cities  or  towns  along  the 
Japanese  railways.  Before  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment assigned  their  communications  system  to 
Japan,  there  were  altogether  sixty-one  Japanese 
post-offices. 

With  regard  to  postal  administration,  the  Korean 
Government  made  its  first  effort  in  1896  to  operate 
a modern  postal  system  by  engaging  Mr.  Yamada, 
Postmaster  of  Osaka,  and  by  enacting  various  Regu- 
lations relating  to  postal  administration  on  the  model 
of  the  Japanese  system.  But  nothing  was  carried 
out  after  his  dismissal.  In  1898,  Mr.  Min  San-ho, 
then  Vice-Minister  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Industry,  and  Commerce,  proceeded  to  Europe 
and  America  to  investigate  Western  systems  of 
postal  administration,  and  brought  back  with  him 
M.  Clemenceau,  a French  gentleman,  who  was  then 
engaged  as  adviser  to  the  Post-Office.  Again  the 
introduction  of  a modern  postal  system  was  com- 
menced, and  Korea  formally  joined  the  Universal 

271 


KOREA 


Postal  Union  in  January,  1901 ; a Board  of  Communi- 
cations being  established  in  March  to  control  the 
postal  and  telegraphic  affairs  of  the  country.  Post- 
offices  were  opened  at  the  treaty  ports  and  in  the 
principal  towns  and  cities.  But  the  operation  and 
management  of  this  postal  service  was  so  poor  that 
the  State  lost  annually  from  140,000  yen  to  290,000 
yen,  without  any  prospect  of  improvement.  Had 
the  postal  administration  been  continued  by  the 
Korean  Government,  the  Treasury  would  have  suf- 
fered even  more.  Thus  “finding  it  expedient  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  administration  and  finances  of 
Korea,”  the  Government  finally  decided  to  transfer 
the  entire  management  of  communications  to  Jap- 
anese control. 

The  Korean  postal  system,  amalgamated  with  the 
Japanese  system,  was  thus  brought  under  the  charge 
of  the  Communications  Department  of  the  Japanese 
Government,  and  became  subject  to  the  control  of 
that  Department’s  Minister.  But  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Residency-General  in  Seoul,  the  charge 
of  the  posts,  telegraphs,  and  telephones  in  Korea  was 
transferred  to  the  Bureau  of  Communications  of  the 
Residency-General  and  its  final  control  fell  to  the 
Resident-General.  The  subsidy  granted  by  the  Jap- 
anese Government  has  decreased  year  by  year 
and  the  earnings  increased,  so  that,  according  to 
present  prospects,  the  postal,  telegraphic,  and 
telephonic  services  in  Korea  will  some  day  become 
self-supporting. 

The  number  of  post-offices,  including  those  newly 

272 


RAILROADS,  ETC. 

built,  was  498  at  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  ended 
March  31,  1906,  and  it  became  485  by  the  amalga- 
mation of  some  small  offices  at  the  end  of  the  next 
fiscal  year.  The  total  number  of  letters  and  post- 
cards handled  by  post-offices  was  42,902,434  during 
the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31,  1906,  as  against 
63,624,682  during  the  year  following,  an  increase 
of  20,722,248,  or  nearly  49  per  cent.;  and  the  total 
number  of  parcels  sent  through  the  post  was  286,734 
and  512,230  in  the  same  years,  respectively,  an 
increase  of  nearly  80  per  cent.,  while  the  number  of 
post-offices  issuing  money-orders  increased  from  512 
in  the  former  year  to  264  in  the  latter. 

The  first  telegraphic  service  in  Korea  was  con- 
ducted by  a Japanese  post-office  at  Fusan  in  Febru- 
ary, 1884,  when  the  Great  Northern  Telegraph  Com- 
pany of  Denmark  laid  a submarine  cable  between 
Nagasaki  and  Fusan.  In  November  of  the  next 
year,  the  Korean  Government  constructed  a line 
between  Seoul  and  Wiju  with  money  borrowed  from 
China.  Then,  in  consequence  of  representations 
made  by  the  Japanese  Minister  at  Seoul,  the  same 
Government  constructed  the  Seoul-Fusan  line  in 
1888,  and  a Seoul-Wonsan  line  was  built  in  1895. 
But  the  maintenance  and  management  of  these  lines 
were  so  bad  that  telegraphic  communication  was 
easily  interrupted  in  inclement  weather,  and  the  ser- 
vice could  not  be  relied  upon.  When  war  broke  out 
with  China,  the  Japanese  army  built  its  own  tele- 
graph lines  between  Fusan,  Seoul,  and  Chemulpo,  and 
the  right  of  maintaining  these  lines  was  reserved  to 

273 


KOREA 


Japan  with  the  consent  of  the  Korean  Government. 
Further,  by  the  Russo-Japanese  Protocol  concluded 
on  June  9,  1896,  the  Russian  Government  obtained 
the  right  of  constructing  a line  from  Seoul  to  the 
Russian  frontier,  and  in  addition  to  these  various 
trunk  lines,  there  were  several  branches  connected 
with  seaports  and  gold  mines.  When  the  whole 
system  of  communications  was  transferred  to  Jap- 
anese control,  the  Korean  Government  possessed 
about  524  ri  (1,310  miles)  of  telegraph  lines,  includ- 
ing a few  telephone  lines. 

As  to  the  telephones  in  Korea,  the  Government 
had  services  at  Seoul,  Chemulpo,  Suwon,  and  Yong- 
tengpo  to  a limited  extent;  but  the  total  number  of 
users  of  these  telephones  did  not  exceed  fifty.  After 
1902,  the  Japanese  post-offices  at  Seoul,  Chemulpo, 
Fusan,  and  other  places  also  operated  telephone 
services. 

The  railways  in  Korea  are  of  the  improved  standard 
gauge,  while  all  those  in  Japan  are  of  the  narrow 
gauge. 

Soon  after  the  war  with  China  had  broken  out, 
Japan  expressed  her  intention  of  obtaining  conces- 
sions for  Seoul-Chemulpo  and  Seoul-Fusan  rail- 
ways, as  indicated  in  the  Agreement  concluded 
with  Korea  on  August  22,  1894.  Later  on,  in  1896, 
Mr.  James  R.  Morse,  an  American  citizen,  secured 
a definite  concession  from  the  Korean  Government 
for  the  Seoul-Chemulpo  line,  and  this  concession 
was  purchased  from  him  in  1898  by  a Japanese 
syndicate.  The  construction  of  the  railway  having 

274 


RAILROADS,  ETC. 

been  completed  in  1901,  it  was  opened  to  traffic  in 
October  of  the  same  year,  being  thus  the  first  railway 
in  Korea.  In  1898,  a definite  concession  for  the 
Seoul-Fusan  line  was  given  to  another  Japanese 
syndicate,  called  the  Seoul  Fusan  Railway  Company. 
With  an  authorised  capital  of  25,000,000  yen,  to  be 
raised  by  annual  instalments  of  five  millions,  and 
with  the  Japanese  Government’s  guarantee  of  inter- 
est on  the  debentures  issued  by  the  Company,  the 
work  of  construction  was  begun  in  August,  1901. 
But  when  the  relations  with  Russia  became  strained 
at  the  end  of  1903,  the  Japanese  Government  granted 
an  additional  subsidy  of  2,200,000  yen  as  well  as  a 
loan  of  1,580,000  yen  without  interest,  in  return  for 
which  the  Company  undertook  to  push  the  construc- 
tion rapidly.  The  railway,  268  miles  in  length,  was 
completed  by  November,  1904,  and  opened  to  traffic 
on  January  1,  1905.  When  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment nationalised  the  principal  private  railways  in 
Japan,  this  policy  was  extended  to  Korea,  and  the 
Seoul-Fusan  and  Seoul-Chemulpo  lines  were  pur- 
chased for  20,015,500  yen  in  June,  1906,  being 
brought  under  the  charge  of  the  Railway  Bureau, 
which,  under  the  control  and  supervision  of  the 
Resident-General,  manages  matters  of  construction, 
maintenance,  and  improvement,  transportation  and 
business  connected  therewith. 

As  to  the  Seoul- Wiju  line,  the  first  concession  was 
given  to  a French  syndicate.  La  Compagnie  de  Fines 
ville,  in  1896,  but  owing  to  delay  in  commencing  con- 
struction, the  Korean  Government  itself,  in  1908, 

275 


KOREA 


decided  to  undertake  the  work.  This  project,  how- 
ever, was  subsequently  suspended  for  lack  of  funds. 
Immediately  after  the  war  with  Russia  had  broken 
out,  the  Japanese  army  began  to  build  the  Seoul- 
Wiju  railway  and  the  Masampo  line,  in  March  and 
August,  respectively,  of  1904,  according  to  the  provi- 
sions of  a treaty  empowering  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment to  take  such  measures  as  the  circumstances 
might  require,  or  to  occupy  such  places  as  might  be 
needful  from  a strategical  point  of  view,  in  case  “ the 
Imperial  Household  or  the  territorial  integrity  of 
Korea  be  endangered  by  the  aggression  of  a third 
Power  or  by  internal  disturbance.”  The  Masampo 
line,  twenty-five  miles  in  length,  was  completed  in 
May,  1905,  and  the  Seoul- Wiju  line  of  323  miles  in 
March,  1906.  The  cost  of  these  two  lines  aggregated 
25,397,357  yen,  and  they  were  transferred  to  the 
charge  of  the  Railway  Bureau  of  the  Residency- 
General  in  September,  1906. 

Up  to  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31, 
1907,  there  had  been  expended  33,194,910  yen  for 
the  Seoul-Fusan  line,  31,600,110  yen  for  the  Seoul- 
Wiju  line,  and  2,338,951  yen  for  the  Masampo  line, 
making  a grand  total  of  67,133,972  yen.  In  Febru- 
ary, 1907,  the  Imperial  Diet  authorised  the  Railway 
Bureau  of  the  Residency-General  to  establish  a spe- 
cial account  for  the  construction  and  improvement 
of  railways  in  Korea,  and  granted  a sum  of  21,873,144 
yen  for  these  purposes,  thus  adding  8,179,003  yen  to 
the  sum  of  13,694,141  yen  which  had  been  already 
appropriated  for  military  objects.  This  fund  is  to  be 

276 


RAILROADS,  ETC. 

expended  during  the  coming  four  years  in  the  follow- 
ing amounts:  — 10,100,020  yen  for  the  fiscal  year 
1907;  7,257,587  yen  for  1908;  3,281,537  yen  for 
1909;  and  1,134,000  yen  for  1910. 


277 


CHAPTER  XXin 


PUBLIC  WORKS 

IN  the  course  of  administrative  reforms,  industrial 
encouragement,  and  educational  extension,  the 
necessity  of  improved  public  buildings  has  been 
felt.  Under  the  pressure  of  this  need,  a “Special 
Section,”  dealing  with  the  construction  of  public 
buildings,  was  established  in  the  Finance  Department 
by  Imperial  Edict  No.  55,  issued  on  September  24, 
1906,  the  staff  of  the  new  Section  being  composed 
of  several  Japanese  engineers  and  architects.  As 
already  stated,  587,221  yen  out  of  the  first  “Public 
Undertakings  Loan”  was  allotted  for  establishing  the 
Tai-Tan  Hospital,  the  Seoul  Court-House,  and  the 
Industrial  Training  School.  Of  that  sum,  293,566 
yen  was  expended  for  building  the  hospital,  78,000 
yen  for  the  court-house,  and  75,209  yen  for  the  school, 
making  a total  of  446,775  yen.  In  addition,  the 
National  Treasury  spent  80,000  yen  for  the  construc- 
tion of  a Cabinet  building,  and  39,279  yen  for  the 
new  Seoul  Prison.  The  Cabinet  building,  the  hos- 
pital, and  the  court-house  are  of  a permanent  nature, 
being  built  of  brick  or  stone,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
they  will  serve  as  a model  for  public  buildings  in 
the  future. 

The  Educational  Department,  also,  has  spent 

278 


PUBLIC  WORKS 


69,250  yen  for  building  the  Seoul  Normal  School, 
and  338,617  yen  for  forty-nine  new  common  schools. 

The  winter  in  Korea  being  rather  severe,  public 
buildings  made  of  wood  are  not  suitable.  Moreover, 
Korea  is  outside  the  earthquake  zone.  For  these 
reasons  the  Government  decided  to  construct  sub- 
stantial brick  buildings  of  a permanent  type.  But 
the  supply  of  bricks  made  by  private  companies 
being  found  inadequate,  while  those  imported  were 
very  expensive,  the  Government  itself  undertook  to 
manufacture  this  commodity,  and  234,000  yen  was 
appropriated  for  the  establishment  of  a brick  factory. 
The  site  selected  is  at  Ma-ho  near  the  Han  River,  and 
50,000  tsuho  (42  acres)  of  land  was  obtained  for  the 
erection  of  buildings  and  to  supply  clay.  The  actual 
making  of  bricks  began  in  April,  1907;  the  setting 
up  of  the  latest  model  of  HofiPman’s  brick-making 
machinery  was  completed  by  September  of  the  same 
year;  and  the  station  thenceforth  became  capable 
of  turning  out  more  than  30,000  bricks  a day.  The 
cost  of  bricks  made  at  this  station  is  much  cheaper 
than  that  of  those  imported. 

As  a branch  of  this  enterprise,  a factory  for  making 
drain-pipes  and  tiles  has  been  established  at  Yong- 
tengpo.  The  whole  of  this  department  was  not 
completed  by  the  end  of  December,  1907,  though 
3,504  pipes  and  97,045  tiles  were  made  in  the  several 
kilns  already  completed  during  the  last  four  months 
of  the  year. 

In  the  course  of  financial  and  administrative 
reforms,  the  Korean  Government  felt  the  pressing 

279 


KOREA 


necessity  of  printing  various  blank  forms  of  oflScial 
documents,  certificates,  stamps,  official  reports,  etc. 
But  private  enterprise  in  this  line  being  in  its  infancy 
in  Korea,  and  consequently  inadequate  for  the  pur- 
pose, the  Finance  Department,  in  November,  1904, 
decided  to  establish  a Printing  Bureau.  To  that 
end  advantage  was  taken  of  the  fact  that  the  mint, 
which  had  been  closed  in  October,  1904,  owing  to  the 
financial  reforms,  was  lying  idle,  and  all  its  machines 
were  utilised  for  the  Printing  Bureau. 

Besides  ordinary  printing  business,  the  Bureau 
undertook  the  engraving  of  copper  plates,  as  well  as 
designing  and  painting.  But  owing  to  a fire  in  March 
1906,  more  than  half  of  the  buildings  was  destroyed 
and  business  had  to  be  suspended  temporarily.  It 
was  soon  resumed,  however,  and  further  extended 
as  follows : — 

1.  Making  of  stamps,  bonds,  and  shares. 

2.  Designing,  engraving,  and  modelling. 

3.  Printing  from  type,  copper  plates,  photolithog- 

raphy, and  so  forth. 

4.  Making  of  ink  and  ink-rollers  for  printing 

purposes. 

5.  Manufacturing  paper  for  official  certificates, 

bonds,  and  other  securities. 

For  the  further  development  of  the  business, 
430,000  yen,  appropriated  from  the  “Public  Under- 
takings Loan,”  is  to  be  spent  in  extending  the  build- 
ings, buying  improved  printing-machines,  providing 
motor-power  and  electric  light,  and  constructing 
residencies  for  employees,  etc.  This  extension 

280 


PUBLIC  WORKS 

work  was  begun  in  September,  1907,  and  is  now 
completed. 

Various  efforts  have  been  made  to  train  native 
labour.  Thus  several  young  Koreans  were  sent  to 
the  Printing  Bureau  in  Japan,  in  1906,  to  study 
improved  systems  of  printing.  Moreover,  Korean 
girls,  who  are  habitually  confined  to  domestic  duties, 
were  encouraged  to  work  in  the  Printing  Bureau, 
and  are  now  engaged  in  various  sections  of  the 
bookbinding,  paper-manufacturing,  and  lithographic 
works.  Japanese  engineers  and  foremen  are  also 
engaged  as  instructors  or  to  undertake  specially 
difficult  and  delicate  work. 

Along  the  main  stream  of  the  Ta-dong  River  and 
its  tributaries,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ping-yang, 
beds  of  anthracite  coal  are  extensive,  the  veins 
being  about  thirteen  ri  (3S^  miles)  in  length  and 
three  ri  (7|  miles)  in  width.  Their  position  forms 
the  figure  Y.  It  is  said  that  the  Koreans  did  not 
pay  any  attention  to  these  rich  deposits  until  the 
sailors  of  a Chinese  junk  first  used  Ping-yang  coal 
for  fires,  some  fifteen  years  ago.  After  the  China- 
Japan  War,  a French  firm,  Messrs.  Rondon,  Plaisan 
et  Cie,  obtained  a mining  lease  from  the  Imperial 
Household,  and  another  Company  (a  Korean  and 
American  partnership)  engaged  in  the  enterprise  of 
coal-mining  for  some  time  at  different  places,  paying 
the  Imperial  Household  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
profits  as  a royalty.  The  Imperial  Household  is 
said  to  have  furnished  300,000  yen  to  each  com- 
pany as  a part  of  their  capital  fund.  In  addition, 

281 


KOREA 


private  individuals,  native  or  foreign,  freely  mined 
the  coal,  without  regard  to  the  public  interest. 

With  the  object  of  establishing  a model  coal-mine 
as  well  as  to  increase  the  national  revenue  in  the 
future,  the  Government  assumed  complete  control 
of  the  Ping-yang  coal-mines,  and  by  Imperial  Edict 
No.  10,  issued  August  22,  1907,  the  “Ping-yang 
Coal  Mining  Station”  was  established  under  the 
supervision  and  control  of  the  Minister  of  Agricul- 
ture, Commerce,  and  Industry,  the  organisation  of 
the  Station  being  subsequently  modified  by  Imperial 
Edict  No.  67  in  December,  1907.  The  staff  is  com- 
posed of  a presiding  engineer,  two  managers,  two 
chief  engineers,  several  assistant  engineers,  and 
clerks.  In  addition,  there  are  twenty-seven  engineers 
engaged  in  the  actual  work  of  mining,  seven  of  them 
being  Koreans.  At  the  end  of  December,  1907, 
thirty-five  foremen  and  425  miners  were  employed, 
ninety  per  cent,  being  Koreans.  Up  to  that  month, 
34,415  yen  had  been  expended  on  developing  the 
work  and  on  the  plant,  and  2,150  tons  of  coal  had 
been  sold  for  5,700  yen. 

The  budget  for  1908  contained  a special  grant  of 
300,000  yen  for  this  coal-mining  station,  to  meet 
expenses  and  the  cost  of  extending  the  mining 
equipment. 

There  exist  rich  forests  along  the  banks  of  the 
Ya-lu  and  the  Tu-men  Rivers,  but  they  were  never 
properly  exploited,  except  in  a temporary  manner 
by  the  Russians  prior  to  the  recent  war,  and  later 
by  the  Japanese  army  in  turn.  Proper  exploita- 

282 


PUBLIC  WORKS 


tion  with  adequate  capital  should  undoubtedly  yield 
a considerable  revenue  to  the  Treasury.  But  being 
unable  without  foreign  aid  to  open  up  this  large 
source  of  wealth,  the  Korean  Government  concluded 
an  agreement  with  the  Resident-General  in  October, 
1906,  to  conduct  forestry  undertakings  along  the 
Ya-lu  and  Tu-men  Rivers  as  a joint  enterprise  of  the 
Japanese  and  Korean  Governments,  with  a capital 
of  1,200,000  yen,  each  party  contributing  one-half. 
Work  actually  began  in  May,  1907,  with  a paid-up 
capital  of  600,000  yen,  and  the  “Forestry  Under- 
takings Station”  was  established  at  Antung  in 
Manchuria,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Ya-lu  River,  oppo- 
site Wiju.  The  business  hitherto  carried  on  in 
Korean  territory  at  a “Timber  Station”  maintained 
by  the  Japanese  army  was  then  transferred  to  this 
new  Forestry  Undertakings  Station.  In  the  Hyoi- 
San-Chin  Mountains,  the  centre  of  the  forests  on  the 
upper  reaches  of  the  Ya-lu  River,  a branch  station 
was  erected  to  manage  the  work  of  felling,  trans- 
porting, and  rafting  the  timber.  Along  the  river 
three  sub-stations  were  created  to  watch  the  rafts. 
The  distance  from  the  place  w’here  the  timber  is 
felled  to  the  main  station  at  Antung  is  150  ri  (375 
miles)  and  the  rafts  take  forty  days  to  make  the 
journey.  During  the  Japanese  fiscal  year  ended 
March  31,  1908,  74,112  cubic  sliaku  of  timber  was 
felled,  of  which  71,006  cubic  shaku  was  rafted  and 
45,301  cubic  shaku  arrived  at  the  main  station, 
19,855  cubic  shaku  being  sold  for  79,596  yen. 

In  accordance  with  the  experience  of  the  Japanese 

283 


KOREA 


troops  who  conducted  the  timber  undertaking  for 
a time,  the  following  estimates  were  compiled:  A 
loss  of  82,970  yen  in  1907;  lessening  to  11,670  yen 
in  1908;  becoming  a profit  of  119,630  yen  in  1909, 
and  so  on.  But  the  actual  loss  in  1907,  namely, 
the  excess  of  expenses  over  sales  of  timber,  did  not 
exceed  46,000  yen,  instead  of  82,970  yen.  This  was 
mainly  owing  to  the  good  market  that  prevailed  in 
China  and  Korea. 


284 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


INDUSTRIAL  ENCOURAGEMENT 

The  mountain  ranges  in  Korea  cover  more  than 
half  the  total  area  of  the  country.  Owing 
to  indiscriminate  felling  of  trees  without 
public  supervision,  which  was  practised  for  a long 
time  past,  most  of  the  mountain  slopes,  except  those 
along  the  Ya-lu  and  Tu-men  Rivers,  the  Chili-san 
range,  dividing  the  provinces  of  South  Kyongsyang 
and  South  Chyolla,  and  the  island  of  Quelpart,  have 
become  denuded  of  trees.  Thus  the  people  not  only 
suffer  from  lack  of  fire-wood,  but  also  are  unable  to 
build  better  houses  than  mere  huts.  Furthermore, 
this  general  deforestation  of  the  mountains  is  a 
principal  cause  of  injury  to  agriculture,  owing  to 
floods  in  the  rainy  season  and  lack  of  water  for  irri- 
gation purpose  in  the  dry  season. 

The  Korean  Government,  appreciating  the  urgent 
advice  of  the  Resident-General,  established,  in  1906, 
three  model  forests  in  the  mountains  near  Seoul, 
Ping-yang,  and  Tai-ku.  The  total  area  of  these 
covered  33,320  cho  (83,300  acres)  and  the  number  of 
young  trees,  comprising  pine,  oak,  larch,  chestnut, 
and  cryptomeria  imported  from  Japan  and  planted, 
amounted  to  17,880,000  at  a cost  of  293,000  yen. 

In  1907,  three  Nursery  Gardens  were  established 

285 


KOREA 


in  the  vicinity  of  the  Model  Forests  near  Ping-yang 
and  Tai-ku,  and  also  at  Suwon.  In  these  Gardens 
seeds  of  various  trees  were  sowed  in  the  spring  of 
1907,  and  promising  results  were  obtained. 

In  addition  to  these  model  forestry  stations,  the 
Government  is  making  every  effort  to  afforest  the 
bare  mountains  throughout  the  country.  In  a school 
attached  to  the  Agricultural  and  Industrial  model 
station  at  Suwon,  a short  course  in  forestry  was 
added  to  the  curriculum,  and  the  first  graduates, 
twelve  in  number,  are  now  actively  engaging  in 
forest  administration  under  the  Government,  and 
at  the  Model  Stations. 

Hitherto  the  administration  of  forests  has  nomi- 
nally been  conducted  by  the  agricultural  section  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and 
Industry,  but  in  order  to  grow  timber  on  the  barren 
mountains,  to  encourage  private  enterprise  in  for- 
ests, and  to  effectively  supervise  the  management  of 
forests,  a Bureau  of  Forestry  was  established  in  the 
Department  in  1907,  and  several  Japanese  experts 
in  forestry  were  engaged  for  service  throughout  the 
country. 

Thus  having  established  model  forests,  a forest 
school,  and  a Bureau  of  Forestry,  the  Government 
is  now  preparing  comprehensive  laws  which  will 
provide,  among  other  things,  that  certain  mountains 
and  forests,  both  public  and  private,  shall  be  pre- 
served as  protections  against  land-slides,  floods,  and 
drought.  On  the  other  hand,  public  lands  or  their 
products  are  to  be  sold,  leased,  or  granted  to  private 

286 


INDUSTRIAL  ENCOURAGEMENT 


individuals  under  certain  limitations  and  conditions 
in  the  interest  of  forestry  improvement. 

Nothing  is  more  important  for  the  advancement 
of  material  prosperity  in  Korea  than  to  give  the 
people  every  opportunity  of  improving  the  old- 
fashioned  methods  of  agriculture  and  industry. 

For  this  purpose  the  Residency-General  estab- 
lished, in  June,  1906,  an  Agricultural  and  Industrial 
Model  Farm  at  Suwon,  about  twenty-five  miles  from 
Seoul,  at  a cost  of  168,520  yen.  This  farm  was 
transferred  to  the  control  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  Industry  of  the  Korean 
Government  in  April,  1907.  Eighty-seven  clio  of 
land  (217  acres)  have  been  appropriated  for  the 
purpose,  and  there  are  attached  to  the  Farm  seven 
competent  Japanese  experts  with  twelve  Japanese 
and  Korean  assistants,  all  under  the  charge  and 
superintendence  of  Dr.  Honda.  Experiments  in 
the  cultivation  of  rice,  barley,  sugar-beet,  tobacco, 
cotton,  and  other  staples  are  made;  sericulture  is 
undertaken;  and  the  raising  of  live  stock  is  tried. 
The  work  done  during  the  last  two  years  is  worth 
attention. 

Rice:  The  Farm  has  paid  serious  attention  to  rice 
cultivation,  as  this  cereal  is  one  of  the  major  agri- 
cultural products  in  Korea.  In  1906,  experiments 
were  undertaken  in  several  fields  near  Suwon  and 
Kunsan,  where  Japanese  and  Korean  seed  was  sown; 
and  it  was  proved  that  the  Japanese  seed  generally 
produced  more  than  the  Korean.  In  1907,  several 
kinds  of  Japanese  rice  were  tried  at  the  Farm, 

287 


KOREA 


and  that  known  as  Shinrilci  was  found  to  be  best 
adapted  to  the  Korean  soil  and  climate,  while  being 
also  the  most  productive.  Of  upland  rice,  the  Orian 
proved  the  best. 

Sugar-beet : The  climate  of  Korea  being  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  Europe,  where  the  sugar-beet  is 
generally  grown,  the  Farm,  in  1906,  distributed  the 
German  seeds,  klein-wanzlebener  and  braune,  for 
trial  at  the  Horticultural  Model  Station  at  Tuksan, 
the  Industrial  Undertakings  Company  at  Hoang-Ju, 
and  the  Aichi  Agricultural  Garden  at  Wonsan.  Of 
these  kinds  of  seed  the  klein-wanzlebener  proved 
the  more  adaptable  to  Korean  soil.  The  results 
obtained  with  this  seed  at  the  Farm  in  1907  were 
satisfactory : they  gave  the  following  average  figures : 
Weight  per  root,  435  grammes;  sugar  contained  in 
liquid,  13,988  per  cent.,  the  purity  being  88  per  cent, 
by  chemical  analysis.  The  climate  in  Korea  being 
drier  than  that  of  Japan,  the  production  of  sugar- 
beet  is  more  promising  than  in  Hokkaido,  wUere  the 
cultivation  of  the  root  is  carried  on  to  a limited 
extent. 

Sericulture;  The  Japanese  originally  learned  seri- 
culture from  the  Koreans,  yet  the  silk  industry  in 
Korea  is  to-day  very  limited  and  its  product  so  crude 
as  not  to  be  comparable  with  the  Japanese  staple. 
The  Farm  experimented  with  silk-w'orm  eggs  and 
mulberry  trees  brought  from  Japan  and  found  that 
they  are  w’ell  adapted  to  the  conditions  existing  in 
Korea.  A great  many  years  wdll  be  required,  how’- 
ever,  to  carry  the  silk  industry  in  Korea  to  a state 

288 


INDUSTRIAL  ENCOURAGEMENT 


approaching  perfection  as  long  as  Korean  houses  are 
so  low  and  dark  that  they  seriously  interfere  with 
the  growth  of  the  worm,  whereas  Japanese  houses 
are  almost  ideal  in  this  respect. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  cultivation  of  wild  silk- 
worms, as  carried  on  in  the  Antung  districts  beyond 
the  Ya-lu,  should  be  capable  of  being  transplanted 
to  Korea,  as  the  conditions  in  north  Korea  and  in 
Antung  are  much  alike,  and  the  Quercus  Mongolia, 
on  which  these  wild  silk-worms  feed,  abounds  in 
both  regions.  The  eggs  of  this  wild  variety  of  silk- 
worms were  brought  from  the  Hoo-san  Mountain  in 
north  Antung  and  tested  at  the  Paingma  Mountain 
in  north  Korea,  also  at  Suwon.  At  both  places  the 
results  of  two  years’  experiments,  alike  with  spring 
and  autumn  broods,  were  satisfactory,  the  worms 
proving  themselves  adaptable  to  Korea  when  proper 
care  is  taken  to  prevent  destruction  by  magpies  as 
well  as  by  flies  and  other  insects. 

Live  stock:  Specimens  of  Berkshire  pigs  have 
been  brought  to  the  Farm,  and  are  proving  so 
satisfactory  that  a pig  of  seven  months  weighs  18 
han  (150  lbs.  av.). 

With  regard  to  poultry,  the  Nagoya  Cochin  China 
and  other  stock  of  foreign  origin  are  being  bred  at 
the  Farm.  The  Cochin  China  do  particularly  well 
in  Korea.  They  keep  very  healthy  without  any 
special  care  during  winter  and  their  eggs  average 
58.5  grammes. 

Besides  the  experimental  works  above  mentioned, 
the  Farm  distributes  seeds  or  young  plants,  eggs  or 

289 


KOREA 


young  live  stock  to  farmers  who  apply  for  such 
things,  or  sells  them  at  cost  price.  Any  necessary 
instruction  or  information  in  regard  to  agricultural 
questions,  is  also  freely  given. 

The  climate  and  soil  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula  are  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  cotton, 
but  the  native  method  of  cultivation  being  primitive, 
Koreans  and  Japanese  interested  in  this  industry 
formed  an  “Association  for  the  Cultivation  of 
Cotton”  (as  stated  in  the  report  for  1906),  with  the 
object  of  introducing  an  improved  system  of  plant- 
ing. The  Korean  Government  also  decided  to  sub- 
sidise this  Association  to  the  extent  of  100,000  yen, 
distributed  over  three  years,  beginning  in  1906,  on 
condition  that  American  upland  cotton  be  introduced; 
that  the  seed  obtained  from  the  crop  be  distributed 
among  planters  at  large,  and  that  a ginning  mill  be 
established,  with  the  special  object  of  preventing 
the  seed  from  being  wastefully  thrown  away.  The 
charge  and  superintendence  of  the  Association  have 
been  entrusted  to  the  Agricultural  and  Industrial 
Model  Farm  at'  Suw’on,  and  a branch  station  for 
experimenting  in  cotton  cultivation  was  established 
at  Mok-po  in  June,  1906. 

This  branch  soon  selected  ten  sites  for  cotton  beds, 
and  erected  a ginning  mill  near  Mok-po.  The  total 
area  under  cotton  cultivation,  including  the  ten  beds 
managed  by  the  experimental  station,  increased  from 
516  tan  in  1906,  to  662  tan  (166  acres),  in  1907,  with 
a production  of  77,074  kin  (92,765  lbs.  av.).  The 
number  of  Koreans  planting  cotton  increased  to  580 

290 


INDUSTRIAL  ENCOURAGEMENT 


in  1907  against  348  in  1906,  while  five  places  where 
Japanese  carried  on  the  enterprise  in  1906  became 
sixteen  in  1907. 

In  past  ages  Korea  reached  an  advanced  stage  in 
various  arts  and  industries,  so  that  the  Japanese 
obtained  from  her  the  arts  of  weaving,  keramics, 
metal-casting,  architecture,  etc.  Since  mediaeval 
days,  however,  Korean  industry  has  been  on  the 
decline,  and  to-day  it  is  in  a state  of  decay.  Should 
the  young  generation  of  men  whose  ancestors  exhib- 
ited remarkable  talent  in  the  various  arts  be  brought 
under  uniform  guidance,  and  be  properly  trained, 
they  will  undoubtedly  show  once  more  their  old 
industrial  activity. 

To  establish  a special  school  for  carrying  out  the 
above  idea  was  one  of  the  principal  objects  in  obtain- 
ing a “Loan  for  Public  Undertakings”  in  1906,  and 
149,654  yen  out  of  the  loan  w'as  allotted  to  establish- 
ing an  Industrial  Training  School  in  Seoul.  By  the 
recommendation  of  the  Resident-General,  Dr.  Hiraga, 
one  of  the  leading  technical  engineers  in  Japan,  was 
engaged  by  the  Korean  Government  to  prepare 
general  plans  of  the  schools.  The  following  six 
courses  of  industrial  training  are  to  be  given  at  this 
institution,  viz:  — 

1 . Dyeing  and  w'eaving : — Bleaching ; plain  dyeing 

and  printing;  weaving  of  cotton,  hemp,  silk, 
and  w'ool. 

2.  Keramics : — Beside  the  original  Korai  faience, 

the  making  of  modern  porcelain  has  been 
introduced. 


291 


KOREA 

3.  Metal  work:  — Casting,  tempering,  and  fin- 

ishing. 

4.  Manual  work:  — Carpentering,  joinery,  and 

wheelwright  work. 

5.  Applied  chemistry:  — Paper  making;  skin 

dressing;  manufacture  of  soap,  glue,  gela- 
tine and  artificial  manure;  oil  extraction 
and  chemical  analysis. 

6.  Civil  engineering : — Surveying  and  drawing. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  following  subjects 

will  be  taught  in  all  courses  alike:  — 

The  Japanese  language;  elementary  English;  arith- 
metic; free-hand  drawing;  physics  and  chemistry. 
The  construction  of  a main  building  and  six  build- 
ings for  the  separate  courses,  as  well  as  two  dormi- 
tories, was  completed  in  March,  1907,  at  the  cost 
of  75,209  yen.  For  machinery  and  apparatus  of 
various  kinds  50,000  yen  has  been  spent. 

The  object  of  the  school  excited  much  interest 
among  the  Koreans,  and  at  the  first  entrance  exami- 
nation, held  in  April,  1907,  there  were  1,100  appli- 
cants, of  whom  only  seventy-four  passed.  In 
addition  to  free  tuition  and  lodging,  an  allowance  of 
six  yen  per  month  is  given  to  each  student. 

For  the  maintenance  of  the  school,  30,170  yen  was 
appropriated  in  1907,  and  41,799  yen  in  1908. 

While  the  Korean  Government  and  the  Residency- 
General  employed  their  utmost  efforts  and  influence 
in  promoting  various  agricultural,  industrial,  and 
commercial  facilities,  they  did  not  neglect  to  afford 
every  available  encouragement  or  opportunity  to  the 

292 


INDUSTRIAL  ENCOURAGEMENT 


Koreans  at  large,  with  a view  to  improving  the  latter’s 
standard  of  living.  Thus  a Seoul  Exposition  was 
held  in  1907,  primarily  to  impart  general  knowledge 
to  the  Koreans,  and  to  stimulate  their  interest  in 
modern  industrial  life.  This  enterprise  was  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Korean  Government  and  the 
Residency-General,  and  received  pecuniary  aid  from 
them,  its  details,  however,  being  managed  by  a pri- 
vate joint  association  of  Koreans  and  Japanese. 
The  total  number  of  exhibitors  was  1,493,  among 
whom  193  were  Koreans,  the  rest  being  Japanese; 
and  the  total  number  of  articles  exhibited  was 
76,021,  namely,  4,909  by  Koreans  and  the  rest  by 
Japanese.  The  Exhibition  was  opened  on  the  1st 
of  September,  1907,  and  remained  open  for  two 
months  and  ten  days.  At  the  beginning,  only  a 
few  Koreans,  drawn  mainly  by  curiosity,  visited  the 
place,  but  the  popularity  of  the  Exhibition  soon 
grew,  and  a large  concourse  of  Koreans  attended, 
their  interest  being  particularly  excited  by  the  con- 
trast between  the  comparative  crudeness  of  their 
own  exhibits  and  the  superior  qualities  of  the  Jap- 
anese articles.  It  was  originally  estimated  that  the 
number  of  visitors  might  not  reach  more  than 
50,000  during  the  whole  term,  but  this  forecast 
was  quadrupled,  the  visitors  actually  aggregating 
208,417.  The  largest  attendance  on  any  one  day 
reached  12,710,  the  smallest  being  223,  and  the 
average  was  2,778  per  diem  for  the  whole  seventy 
days.  Seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  visitors  were 
Koreans. 


293 


CHAPTER  XXV 


SANITATION  AND  WATER  WORKS 

Although  Korea  is  not  typically  a tropical 
country,  yet  various  plagues  have  often 
threatened  both  human  beings  and  cattle. 
Proper  sanitary  measures  having  hitherto  been 
neglected,  the  population  has  been  at  a standstill 
for  a long  time.  A hospital  and  a medical  school 
to  promote  vaccination  were  first  established  in  1897 
under  the  advice  of  a Japanese,  Dr.  Kojo,  and,  three 
years  later,  eighty-one  medical  students  having  grad- 
uated, they  were  distributed  among  vaccination 
stations,  which  were  established  throughout  the 
provinces,  by  a decree  of  the  Home  Department, 
issued  on  June  27,  1897.  The  regulations  provide 
also  for  general  compulsory  vaccination;  and,  in 
addition,  several  laws  and  regulations  were  enacted 
for  the  prevention  of  cholera,  typhoid  fever,  dysen- 
tery, and  diphtheria.  These  laws  were  not  carried 
into  effect:  they  were  pigeon-holed. 

In  March,  1906,  the  Advisory  Police  Board  engaged 
about  fifty  Japanese  physicians  and  distributed  them 
among  the  police  stations  in  the  various  provinces. 
They  had  charge  of  vaccination  and  other  sanitary 
measures.  Since  these  measures  have  been  taken, 
the  number  of  small-pox  cases  has  decreased  compara- 

294 


SANITATION  AND  WATER  WORKS 


lively,  although  an  accurate  estimate  has  not  yet 
been  obtained. 

In  the  later  part  of  the  summer  of  1907,  when 
several  cases  of  cholera  appeared  among  the  Koreans, 
Chinese,  and  Japanese  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ya-lu 
River,  a temporary  quarantine  station,  with  a 
personnel  of  several  Japanese  and  Korean  commis- 
sioners, was  established  in  Shin-Wiju,  and  when  the 
disease  made  its  appearance  in  Fusan,  Chemulpo, 
Ping-yang,  and  Seoul,  the  Police  Advisory  Board 
established  branch  quarantine  stations  in  these 
places  also.  Prior  to  the  visit  of  the  Crown  Prince 
of  Japan  to  Seoul,  the  Resident-General  issued  a 
special  order  for  the  establishment  of  a “Plague 
Preventive  Staff”  (principally  consisting  of  the 
medical  corps  of  the  Japanese  garrison  and  advisory 
police),  and  thorough  measures  for  disinfection  were 
rigorously  carried  out  in  the  city  of  Seoul.  The 
result  of  these  precautions  was  that  any  serious 
spread  of  the  epidemic  was  checked.  Official  reports 
give  the  following  statistics:  361  cases  of  cholera 
(198  Koreans,  152  Japanese,  and  11  Chinese);  270 
deaths  (156  Koreans,  8 Chinese,  and  106  Japanese). 

In  connection  with  the  organic  regulations  for  cen- 
tral and  local  administration,  issued  in  December, 
1907,  various  sanitary  organisations  were  established. 
With  regard  to  central  administration  for  sani- 
tary purposes,  the  Sanitary  Bureau  of  the  Home 
Department  is  to  control  and  supervise  the  sanitary 
administration  of  the  whole  country;  the  Sanitation 
Experimental  Section  of  the  Tai-Han  Hospital  is  to 

295 


KOREA 


take  charge  of  experiments  along  the  line  of  sanita- 
tion; while  the  local  sanitary  administration  is  to  be 
conducted  by  the  second  section  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Police  Office,  by  the  sanitary  sections  of  the 
Provincial  Police  Stations,  and  by  the  provincial 
governments.  Municipal  organisation  for  sanitation 
was  inaugurated  by  the  Seoul  Sanitary  Association, 
organised  as  a joint  undertaking  of  the  Seoul  munici- 
pality and  the  Japanese  settlement  municipality,  it 
being  arranged  that  the  expenses  of  this  association 
should  be  met  by  a subsidy  from  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment, and  by  fees  collected  from  the  Korean  and 
Japanese  residents  in  Seoul. 

Until  very  recently  Korea  possessed  no  adequately 
equipped  hospital  on  a large  scale,  though  there  were 
two  small  hospitals,  and  one  attached  to  a medical 
school  in  Seoul;  as  well  as  several  other  hospitals 
organised  by  foreign  missionary  societies  or  by  the 
municipalities  of  the  various  Japanese  settlements. 
These  hospitals,  however,  were  irregularly  managed, 
and  did  not  possess  any  competent  equipment  or 
accommodation,  though  one  of  them  was  controlled 
by  the  Home  Department,  another  by  the  Imperial 
Household,  and  a third  — which  was  attached  to  the 
Medical  College  — by  the  Educational  Department. 

In  accordance  with  the  advice  of  the  Resident- 
General,  the  Korean  Government  decided,  in  1906, 
to  establish  one  large  new  hospital,  by  amalgamating 
the  above  mentioned  three  institutions.  For  this  pur- 
pose 357,577  yen,  out  of  the  “Public  Undertakings 
Loan,”  was  allotted  for  construction  and  mainte- 

296 


SANITATION  AND  WATER  WORKS 

nance,  and  the  hospital  was  placed  under  the  control 
of  the  Home  Department;  Baron  Dr.  Sato,  a promi- 
nent Surgeon-General  in  Japan,  being  invited  to  act 
as  councillor  in  the  establishment  of  this  Tai-Han 
Hospital,  and  later  being  made  its  President.  Mad- 
zusan  Hill,  the  most  healthy  location  in  Seoul,  was 
selected  for  the  hospital.  Most  of  the  buildings 
are  of  brick,  and  the  hospital  has  been  divided  into 
five  sections,  namely,  medical,  surgical,  gynaecolog- 
ical, and  ophthalmological,  together  with  a section 
for  diseases  of  the  ear,  nose,  and  throat.  The  medical 
faculty  is  composed  of  the  President,  eight  Japanese 
and  two  Korean  doctors,  with  three  Japanese  and 
five  Korean  assistants;  four  Japanese  pharmacists 
and  ten  Japanese  nurses.  Six  buildings  of  one-story 
construction  have  been  provided  as  wards  for  the 
patients,  and  these  are  divided  into  three  classes. 
Beside  these  an  isolated  building  has  been  erected 
for  patients  with  infectious  diseases.  In  the  first 
class  wards  a charge  is  made  of  2^  yen  a day; 
in  the  second  class,  1.25  yen,  and  in  the  third,  75 
sen;  but  all  foreign  people  are  charged  double 
these  fees.  As  for  medicine  for  out-patients,  all 
foreign  people  have  to  pay  fifty  per  cent,  more 
than  Koreans  do.  For  patients  in  extreme  poverty, 
free  advice  and  treatment  are  given. 

The  Medical  School  attached  to  the  Tai-Han  Hos- 
pital succeeded  the  Seoul  Medical  School  which 
belonged  to  the  Educational  Department.  The  new 
Medical  School  was  reorganised  on  an  improved 
modern  system.  Its  teaching  force  consists  of  three 

297 


KOREA 


Japanese  professors,  three  Korean  doctors,  and  one 
American  physician.  The  school  is  exclusively  de- 
signed to  train  Koreans  as  physicians,  surgeons, 
pharmacists,  mid  wives,  and  nurses;  and  the  course 
of  study  extends  over  four  years  for  medicine;  three 
for  pharmacy;  and  one  for  midwifery  or  nursing. 
In  the  Medical  Department  the  curriculum  includes 
anatomy,  physiology,  pathology,  diagnosis,  phar- 
macy, practice  of  medicine,  pediatrics,  surgery, 
genito-urinary  treatment,  gynaecology,  midwifery, 
sanitation,  bacteriology,  medico-jurisprudence,  and 
clinical  practice.  In  addition,  arithmetic,  physics, 
chemistry,  and  Japanese  are  taught  in  the  first  year, 
because  the  Koreans  are  still  deficient  in  the  common 
branches  of  education.  Those  who  pass  the  entrance 
examinations  with  good  marks  are  received  as  Gov- 
ernment students,  all  their  expenses  for  dormitory, 
clothing,  and  tuition  being  given  to  them,  while  in 
the  case  of  other  students  the  fees  only  are  remitted 
and  text-books  are  lent. 

The  well-water  in  Korean  towns  is  often  a cause 
of  epidemic  diseases,  owing  to  infiltration  from 
stagnant  drains  and  uncleaned,  necessaries.  In  spite 
of  the  fact  that  water  works  for  the  large  cities  are 
thus  of  vital  importance,  attention  was  never  seri- 
ously paid  to  the  matter  until  the  Japanese  Muni- 
cipal Council  in  Seoul  held  a meeting  to  discuss  this 
subject  on  January  29,  1904,  and  decided  to  build 
a reservoir  on  Nam  San,  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing the  Japanese  settlement  with  water  at  a cost 
of  100,000  yen.  The  measure  was  not  carried  out, 

298 


SANITATION  AND  WATER  WORKS 

however,  owing  to  a protest  from  Messrs.  Collbran 
and  Bostwick,  an  American  firm,  which  claimed 
the  exclusive  privilege  of  constructing  water  works 
in  Seoul.  Meanwhile,  in  March,  1906,  on  the  urgent 
advice  of  the  Resident-General,  the  Korean  Govern- 
ment decided  to  appropriate  funds  for  water  works 
out  of  the  “Loan  for  Public  Undertakings,”  and  to 
apply  them  for  the  construction  of  water  works  at 
Chemulpo  and  Ping-yang,  as  well  as  to  subsidise 
the  water  works  at  Fusan,  which  had  already  been 
commenced  by  the  Japanese  settlement  there.  The 
amount  thus  allotted  to  Chemulpo  is  2,170,000  yen; 
to  Ping-yang,  1,300,000  yen^  and  as  a subsidy  to 
Fusan,  350,000  yen.  A Bureau  of  Water  Works  was 
established  in  June  under  the  control  of  the  Finance 
Department,  but  was  amalgamated  with  the  Bureau 
of  Public  Works  of  the  Home  Department  in  Decem- 
ber, 1907. 

The  site  chosen  for  the  pumping  station  is  at 
No-Yang-jin  on  the  banks  of  the  Han  River  above 
Yong-san.  All  the  necessary  surveys  for  the  pump- 
ing station,  including  settling  reservoirs  and  filters, 
a clear  water  basin,  the  route  of  the  pipe  line,  and 
a distributing  reservoir,  were  completed  by  October, 
1906,  but,  owing  to  the  severity  of  the  winter, 
work  was  not  actually  begun  till  March,  1907.  The 
capacity  of  the  water  works  has  been  calculated  so 
as  to  furnish  a supply  of  280,000  cubic  shaku  of 
water  a day,  on  a basis  of  four  cubic  shaku  per 
head  of  70,000  inhabitants,  the  possible  population  in 
the  near  future  being  estimated  as  follows:  Koreans, 

299 


KOREA 


30,000;  foreigners,  25,000;  and  15,000  for  ships 
watering  at  the  port.  The  intake  is  to  be  in  the 
Han  River,  a mile  above  the  railway  bridge,  where 
the  water  is  free  from  contamination  and  altogether 
suitable  for  drinking  purposes.  The  pumping  sta- 
tion is  connected  with  the  settling  reservoirs  and 
filters,  which  have  respectively  a total  capacity  of 
560,000  cubic  shaku,  sufficient  for  two  days’  con- 
sumption by  a population  of  70,000.  A clear  water 
basin  is  to  be  built  on  a hill  at  No-Yang-jin,  300 
shaku  above  sea  level,  having  a capacity  of  140,000 
cubic  shaku,  or  sufficient  for  half  a day.  The  dis- 
tributing reservoir  is  to  be  built  on  a hill  200  shaku 
above  sea  level  to  the  north-east  of  Chemulpo,  and 
will  have  a capacity  of  560,000  cubic  shaku,  or  two 
days’  maximum  supply.  The  length  of  the  main 
pipe  between  the  clear  water  basin  and  the  distrib- 
uting reservoir  is  to  be  8 n 14  cho,  and  its  diameter 
20  inches. 

The  work  of  construction  is  to  be  completed  within 
five  years,  beginning  from  1906,  when  the  preliminary 
surveys  and  the  purchase  of  necessary  materials  were 
commenced.  By  the  end  of  December,  1907,  one- 
third  of  the  construction  had  been  finished. 

The  survey  of  the  Water  Works  for  Ping-yang  was 
completed  by  December,  1906.  It  has  been  planned 
on  the  basis  of  a population  of  50,000,  namely, 
Koreans,  30,000;  foreigners,  12,000;  military,  4,500; 
and  4,000  for  railway  use.  The  pumping  system  is 
to  be  similar  to  that  at  Chemulpo,  and  the  water  is 
to  come  from  a point  in  the  main  stream  of  the  Ta- 

300 


SANITATION  AND  WATER  WORKS 


Dong  River  to  the  pumping  station  on  Neung-ma 
Island,  with  which  settling  reservoirs  and  filters  are 
connected.  Thence,  the  water  is  to  be  led  across  a 
branch  stream  of  the  Ta-Dong  River  to  the  distrib- 
uting reservoirs,  which  have  a total  capacity  of 

3.400.000  litres  for  twelve  hours.  Half  of  the  work 
of  construction  was  done  by  the  end  of  December, 
1907,  and  the  whole  is  expected  to  be  finished  by 
the  end  of  1909. 

The  Water  Works  at  Fusan  are  under  construc- 
tion as  a joint  enterprise  of  the  Korean  Government 
and  the  Japanese  Municipal  Council,  at  a cost  of 

1.170.000  yen,  out  of  which  820,000  yen  is  to 
be  subscribed  by  the  municipality  and  the  balance 
of  350,000  yen  by  the  Government,  and  the  work  of 
construction  is  to  be  carried  out  under  the  control 
of  the  Bureau  of  Public  Works.  The  plan  for  the 
works  at  Fusan  is  to  improve  the  old  reservoir 
hitherto  maintained  by  the  Japanese  municipality 
and  to  build  a large  new  one,  with  a capacity  for 

55.000  people.  The  gravitation  system  has  been 
adopted,  and  the  old  impounding  reservoir  on 
Ko-uon-kyon  Mountain  is  expanded  to  contain  a 
supply  for  10,000  persons,  while  a new  impounding 
reservoir  is  to  be  constructed  on  a mountain  two  n 
from  the  city  capable  of  supplying  45,000  people. 
The  water  from  the  two  impounding  reservoirs  is  to 
be  conducted  to  a distributing  reservoir,  constructed 
on  a hill  behind  the  present  Customs  office.  The 
work  was  begun  in  April,  1907,  and  is  to  be  com- 
pleted within  three  years  and  a half. 

301 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


EDUCATION 

PRIOR  to  the  China-Japan  War,  there  was  no 
real  public  school  system  in  Korea,  nor 
any  institution  for  giving  modern  education. 
In  fact,  education  has  never  been  regarded  as  a 
matter  of  public  interest,  but  only  as  a private  affair. 
A litterateur  in  a village  gives  lessons  to  boys  in  the 
writing  and  reading  of  Chinese  characters  and  in 
domestic  etiquette,  this  kind  of  school  being  known 
as  clu-pung.  For  a more  advanced  study  of  Chinese 
Korean  boys  go  to  the  Han-gyo,  where  the  image  of 
Confucius  is  venerated,  and  this  Han-gyo  is  main- 
tained in  each  district  with  income  derived  from 
rice-fields  granted  by  the  Government  or  donated  by 
private  individuals.  One  candidate  selected  from 
each  Han-gyo  is  eligible  to  enter  the  Son-gyun-koan 
at  Seoul,  which  is  merely  a high  educational  institu- 
tion for  the  study  of  the  Chinese  classics.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  general  history,  geography, 
and  mathematics  have  been  included  in  the  curricu- 
lum. Graduates  from  the  Son-gyun-koan  are  eligible 
for  the  lower  grades  of  the  Civil  Service. 

Although  several  laws  and  ordinances  relating  to 
common,  middle,  normal,  and  technical  schools  were 
promulgated  in  the  course  of  the  general  administra- 

302 


tive  reforms  in  1895  after  the  China- Japan  War, 
these  regulations  were  largely  ineffective.  Common 
schools  and  others  were  indeed  established  in  Seoul 
and  some  provincial  cities,  but  they  may  be  said  to 
have  confined  themselves  to  the  irregular  teaching 
of  Chinese  ideographs,  other  important  studies  being 
neglected  for  the  most  part.  There  are  schools 
maintained  by  various  foreign  missionary  societies, 
besides  several  schools  under  Buddhist  missionaries 
from  Japan. 

For  the  sake  of  the  general  welfare  of  the  young 
generation,  reform  in  education  is  of  vital  importance. 
The  educational  affairs  of  the  country  cannot  be 
entrusted  wholly  to  foreign  missionary  schools,  or 
abandoned  to  the  imperfect  system  hitherto  pursued 
by  the  Korean  Government. 

In  accordance  with  the  advice  of  the  Resident- 
General,  the  Korean  Government  appropriated 

500.000  yen  out  of  the  “Loan  for  Public  Under- 
takings,” in  March,  190G,  for  the  extension  of  educa- 
tion; 350,000  yen  being  allotted  for  improving  and 
establishing  common  schools,  and  the  balance, 

150.000  yen,  for  expanding  and  improving  normal 
schools,  high  schools,  and  foreign  language  schools. 

Based  on  the  educational  system  of  advanced 
countries,  yet  carefully  adapted  to  existing  condi- 
tions in  Korea,  general  regulations  for  common 
schools  were  issued  by  Imperial  Edict  and  by  a 
decree  of  the  Minister  of  Education  in  August,  1906. 

While  common  schools  in  Japan  are  maintained  by 
municipalities  or  local  governments,  in  Korea  the 

303 


KOREA 


Central  Government  also  takes  a leading  part  in 
supporting  such  schools,  municipal  and  local  admin- 
istration not  being  yet  developed.  Instead  of  com- 
pulsory education,  a voluntary  system  of  attendance 
has  been  adopted,  as  the  present  scale  of  living 
among  the  Koreans  is  not  compatible  with  compul- 
sory attendance.  However,  in  order  to  encourage 
children  to  come  to  school,  tuition  and  text-books 
are  free.  While  the  course  of  study  in  Japan  is 
eight  years  — six  years  in  the  lower  grade  and  two 
years  in  the  upper  — a four  years’  course  has  been 
adopted  in  Korea,  by  combining  parts  of  the  upper 
and  lower  Japanese  grades,  and  the  village  clu-pung 
are  to  connect  with  the  common  schools  as  pre- 
paratory to  the  latter. 

The  course  of  instruction  includes  moral  teach- 
ing, the  languages  of  Korea,  China,  and  Japan, 
arithmetic,  simple  geography  and  history,  physics, 
drawing,  and  physical  exercises.  Sewing  and  other 
domestic  accomplishments  are  added  for  girls;  while 
music,  manual  training,  and  lessons  in  agriculture 
and  industry  can  be  given  as  voluntary  courses. 

Text-books  are  to  be  used  in  teaching  morality, 
languages  (Japanese,  Korean,  and  Chinese),  physics, 
and  writing.  The  text-books  for  geography  and  his- 
tory have  not  yet  been  issued  separately,  but  they 
are  included  in  the  Korean  and  Japanese  reading- 
books. 

By  the  end  of  December,  1907,  the  number  of 
common  schools  established  under  the  new  regula- 
tions was  forty-nine  (eight  in  Seoul  and  forty -one  in 

304 


EDUCATION 

the  various  provinces)  with  51  Japanese  teachers 
and  152  native  teachers,  4,052  boys  and  40  girls. 
Besides  these,  there  are  thirty-five  common  schools 
established  in  accordance  with  the  old  regulations, 
but  their  management  is  so  poor  that  they  can 
scarcely  be  said  to  have  any  system,  and  the  exact 
number  of  teachers  and  pupils  is  unknown. 

There  are  also  271  private  schools  recognised  by 
the  Government,  but  in  their  case  also  the  exact 
number  of  teachers  and  pupils  is  unknown.  The 
Government  is  working  to  bring  them  gradually 
into  harmony  with  the  public  schools,  as  far  as 
possible. 

Nothing  is  more  important  for  the  improvement 
of  general  education  in  Korea  than  the  training  of 
native  teachers.  Therefore  the  Government  has 
given  most  serious  attention  to  establishing  a new 
Normal  School.  In  order  to  train  uniform  and  com- 
petent teachers  for  the  common  schools,  the  new 
regulations  for  the  Normal  School,  promulgated  by 
Imp)erial  Edict  No.  41,  on  August  27,  1906,  do 
not  recognise  any  private  normal  school;  every 
normal  school  must  be  founded  by  the  Central,  or 
Provincial,  Government.  The  course  of  study  is 
nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  normal  school  in 
Japan,  except  that  the  Japanese  language  consti- 
tutes one  of  the  most  important  subjects  in  the 
Korean  normal  school.  The  curriculum  includes 
moral  teaching,  pedagogy,  the  Korean,  Japanese, 
and  Chinese  languages,  history,  arithmetic,  physics, 
chemistry,  natural  science,  drawing,  music,  and 

305 


KOREA 


gymnastics.  By  permission  of  the  Minister  of  Edu- 
cation, one  or  more  courses  in  agriculture,  commerce, 
and  manual  training  may  be  included;  and  for  prac- 
tical training  in  teaching,  a common  school  may  be 
attached  to  the  normal  school.  The  term  of  the 
regular  course  is  three  years;  but  a preparatory 
course,  a short-term  course,  or  a lecture  course, 
for  special  students  may  be  completed  in  one  year. 
Tuition,  board,  and  clothing  are  given  by  the 
Government  to  all  regular  students. 

The  construction  of  the  new  normal  school  was 
completed  in  December,  1907.  By  the  end  of  that 
month,  there  were  106  students,  with  five  Japanese 
and  three  Korean  teachers. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  are  two  kinds 
of  schools  maintained  by  the  Government  under  the 
new  regulations,  one  the  High  School,  the  other  the 
Foreign  Language  Schools. 

The  object  of  the  High  School  is  to  give  a liberal 
education  to  Korean  boys  above  twelve  years  of  age, 
who  have  passed  through  the  common  schools  or 
who  have  corresponding  attainments.  The  course 
includes  history,  geography,  mathematics,  natural 
science,  physics,  chemistry,  ethics,  the  Korean, 
Japanese,  and  Chinese  languages,  drawing,  music, 
and  gymnastics.  Elementary  law  and  economics 
are  also  given  as  voluntary  subjects,  and  the  course 
of  study  occupies  a period  of  four  years. 

At  the  end  of  December,  1907,  there  was  only  one 
high  school  with  126  students,  ten  Korean  and  five 
Japanese  teachers. 


306 


EDUCATION 


In  Seoul  there  are  five  foreign  language  schools 
for  teaching  Japanese,  English,  Chinese,  German, 
and  French,  respectively;  besides  a Japanese  lan- 
guage school  at  Chemulpo  and  two  at  Ping-yang. 

For  children  of  the  Imperial  Family  and  the  nobil- 
ity, a Peers  School,  called  the  Su-hak-won,  was  estab- 
lished in  1906,  It  ranks  as  a common  school  in 
educational  grade,  and  although  controlled  by  the 
Minister  of  the  Imperial  Household,  the  Minister 
of  Education  is  freely  consulted  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  educational  work. 

Prior  to  the  entrance  of  Korea  into  treaty  rela- 
tions with  the  Western  Powers,  the  Government 
rigorously  maintained  an  anti-Christian  policy,  and 
a number  of  French  missionaries  were  put  to  death 
or  banished.  The  Western  Powers,  however,  secured 
freedom  of  missionary  enterprise  within  the  treaty 
limits,  and,  later,  the  work  of  American,  French, 
and  English  mission  societies  was  extended,  so  that 
now  a number  of  missionaries  are  engaged  in  preach- 
ing the  gospel  of  Christ  in  the  interior,  and  many 
schools  and  hospitals  have  been  established  under 
Christian  auspices.  When  the  Japanese  Govern- 
ment assumed  control  of  the  foreign  affairs  of  Korea, 
they  promptly  notified  the  Treaty  Powers  that  the 
treaty  rights  of  all  nations  would  be  respected;  and, 
although  the  Resident-General  has  charge  of  matters 
relating  to  foreigners  in  Korea,  the  Japanese  authori- 
ties have  never  interfered  with  the  activities  of  the 
foreign  missionaries;  on  the  contrary,  all  necessary 
protection  has  promptly  been  given  to  them.  A 

307 


KOREA 


report  was  circulated  journalistically  in  1907  to  the 
effect  that  certain  missionaries  were  not  in  sympathy 
with  the  reform  measures  taken  by  the  Korean 
Government  under  the  advice  of  the  Resident- 
General.  Thereupon  the  leading  representatives  of 
one  of  the  missionary  bodies  called  on  the  Resident- 
General,  and  gave  assurances  that  missionary  activ- 
ity was  confined  to  religious  and  educational  lines, 
so  far,  at  least,  as  their  own  mission  was  concerned. 

At  the  time  of  the  abdication  of  the  Emperor, 
which  was  followed  by  riots  in  Seoul,  it  was  alleged 
that  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association  had 
instigated  a movement  against  the  Government, 
but  the  General  Secretary  of  that  Association  in 
Korea  promptly  made  known  its  status  and  explained 
that  it  was  a non-political  society,  purely  religious 
and  educational.  Nevertheless,  the  fact  is  notorious 
that  there  existed  a widespread  tendency  among  the 
native  believers  at  the  time  to  make  unwarranted 
use  of  the  names  of  their  churches  and  of  the  above 
association  for  purposes  of  political  agitation.  The 
Korean  Government,  however,  as  well  as  the  Resi- 
dency-General, knew  well  that  United  States’  citizens 
engaged  in  missionary  work  in  Korea  had  received 
more  than  one  official  warning  by  their  Government 
to  strictly  “refrain  from  any  expression  of  opinion, 
or  from  giving  advice,  concerning  the  internal  man- 
agement of  the  country,  or  from  any  intermeddling 
in  political  questions,”  and  consequently  there  was 
never  any  doubt  that  American  missionaries  would 
appreciate  the  disposition  of  their  Government  and 

308 


EDUCATION 

devote  their  activities  to  religious  and  educational 
propaganda  alone.  The  Resident-General  more  than 
once  made  known  his  favourable  appreciation  of 
the  religious  and  educational  efforts  of  the  foreign 
missionaries,  believing  that  they  would  co-operate 
with  him  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  Koreans, 
and  he  further  intimated  that  he  would  exercise  his 
influence  to  protect  their  work,  so  long  as  their 
activities  were  confined  to  religious  and  educational 
matters.  Finally  when,  in  December,  1907,  the 
Educational  Committee  of  the  General  Council  of 
Protestant  Evangelical  Missions  approached  the 
Korean  Government  with  a request  that  the  meas- 
ures undertaken  for  establishing  new  public  schools 
should  not  interfere  with  work  of  the  missionary 
schools,  the  Vice-Minister  of  Education  gave  as- 
surance that  the  Department  of  Education  would 
render  every  possible  assistance  to  the  educa- 
tional efforts  of  the  missionaries. 


309 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE^ 


The  policy  of  Japan  in  Korea  to-day  cannot  be 
fully  understood  unless  it  is  regarded  not  as 
an  isolated  manifestation,  but  as  a part  of  a 
great  Imperial  scheme.  Japan  has  set  out  to  be  a 
supreme  world-Power,  and  she  is  rapidly  realising 
her  ambition.  Yesterday  her  territory  was  limited, 
her  people  were  desperately  poor,  her  army  and 
fleet  were  thought  to  be  negligible  quantities,  and 
her  aspirations  were  pityingly  looked  upon  as  the 
fevered  dreams  of  an  undeveloped  people.  To-day  we 
are  in  danger  of  over-estimating  the  Japanese  force 
and  strength  as  greatly  as  yesterday  our  fathers 
under-estimated  it.  Japan  has  found  Imperialism 
a costly,  dangerous,  and  burdensome  policy.  Her 
navy  and  her  army  have  won  her  world-glory,  but 
she  is  still  struggling  and  staggering  under  a load 
that  even  yet  may  be  too  much  for  her. 

Japanese  statesmen  realise  that  they  must  have 
fresh  territories  in  which  to  settle  their  people.  Their 
own  land  is  crowded  and  over-populated.  Each  year 
sees  an  increase  of  from  600,000  to  700,000  people. 
The  33,000,000  in  the  Japan  of  1872  are  now  just  on 
50,000,000,  and  the  rate  of  increase  grows  greater 
each  year.  The  vast  majority  of  these  people  are 

* From  “ The  Tragedy  of  Korea,”  by  F.  A.  McKenzie. 

310 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 

still  very  poor,  and  Japan  to-day  has  slums  in  her 
cities,  and  problems  of  child-labour,  sweated  labour, 
and  starvation,  rivalling  those  of  Western  nations. 
Unbacked  by  great  natural  resources  or  by  consider- 
able reserves  of  wealth,  her  Government  is  trying  to 
carry  through  the  most  gigantic  and  costly  of  tasks 
on  a foundation  of  patriotism  and  splendid  national 
spirit. 

For  myself,  I cannot  but  feel  the  most  profound 
and  genuine  respect  for  the  loyalty  and  high  racial 
ambitions  that  have  carried  the  nation  so  far.  The 
casual  visitor  to  Japan  to-day  sees  great  and  glaring 
faults,  but  those  of  us  who  have  lived  longer  among 
her  people  and  have  gone  deeper  into  her  problems 
wonder  not  that  there  are  faults,  but  that  develop- 
ment has  reached  a stage  when  faults  are  noted. 

Not  long  since  I was  on  the  train  from  Seoul  to 
Fusan.  It  was  five  hours  late.  It  had  broken  down 
twice.  The  locomotive,  badly  cleaned  and  badly 
handled,  was  scarce  able  to  drag  its  load,  and  car- 
riages had  been  discarded  to  lighten  it. 

Some  of  us,  standing  in  the  Korean  station  — 
wet,  cold,  and  miserable  — were  passing  caustic 
remarks  about  Japanese  engine-drivers  and  the  way 
they  muddled  and  misused  their  engines.  A quiet 
Scotsman  turned  on  us  with  a single  question. 
“Do  you  ever  reflect,”  he  asked,  “on  the  wonder 
that  these  people  can  do  as  well  as  they  do?  Think 
of  it,”  he  continued.  “The  driver  was  probably 
two  years  ago  an  agricultural  labourer  in  a village, 
and  had  never  seen  an  engine.  He  is  running  this 

3U 


KOREA 


train  badly,  it  is  true,  but  he  is  running  it,  and  in 
twelve  months’  time  he  will  be  handling  it  well. 
What  man  of  another  nation  could  have  done  the 
same.^” 

The  quiet  Scotsman  had  touched  the  heart  of  the 
problem.  It  is  barely  thirty  years  since  Japan  was 
still  torn  in  the  struggle  between  feudalism  and 
modernity.  The  men  who  to-day  are  managing 
cotton  mills  wore,  in  their  younger  manhood,  two 
swords  and  fantastic  armour.  Yesterday  the  kiheitai 
(irregular  soldiers)  walked  through  their  districts 
armed  to  the  teeth,  terrorising  peaceful  farmers; 
now  the  same  kiheitai  work  their  ten  hours  a day  in 
the  factory  for  thirty  cents.  Yesterday  the  dainty 
wife  sat  modestly  at  home  waiting  for  her  lord  to 
return  from  his  political  brawls;  to-day  the  same 
wife  is  busy  over  the  spinning- jenny  in  the  factory, 
while  her  lord  is  doing  his  share  in  shop  or  ware- 
house. The  thing  is  a world-miracle,  and  the  longer 
one  contemplates  it  the  greater  the  miracle  appears. 

Japan  has  broken  her  solemn  promises  to  Korea 
and  has  evaded  in  every  way  her  pledged  obligations 
to  maintain  the  policy  of  equal  opportunities,  because 
she  is  driven  thereto  by  heavy  taxation,  by  the  pov- 
erty of  her  people,  and  by  the  necessity  of  obtaining 
fresh  markets  and  new’  lands  for  settlement.  Her 
people  are  now’  the  most  heavily  taxed  in  proportion 
to  income  of  any  in  the  w orld.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  Russo-Japanese  W'ar  a scheme  of  Imperial  taxa- 
tion was  instituted  that  was  thought  to  reach  the 
final  extreme  possible  to  bear  as  a national  war 

312 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 

burden.  This  taxation  was  further  increased  in 
1905,  it  being  understood  that  the  extraordinary 
special  taxes  were  to  be  abolished  on  the  last  day  of 
the  year  following  the  restoration  of  peace.  The 
land-tax  was  increased  during  the  war  from  120  to 
700  per  cent.,  the  business  tax  150  per  cent.,  the 
income  tax  from  80  to  270  per  cent.,  and  the  sugar 
duties  from  100  to  195  per  cent.  There  were  also 
various  other  increases.  Great  national  industries, 
such  as  tobacco  and  railways,  were  nationalised,  and 
Japan  succeeded  in  sending  up  her  ordinary  income 
from  $125,000,000  to  over  $200,000,000.  At  the  end 
of  the  war  the  Government  announced  that  under 
existing  circumstances  the  promised  remission  of 
the  war  tax  could  not  be  carried  out,  so  they  were 
kept  on  to  its  full  extent.  Now  for  the  financial 
year  of  1908-9  the  Government  is  compelled  to 
impose  a number  of  taxes  over  and  above  the  war 
burden,  and  despite  this  is  still  faced  by  the  proba- 
bility of  a heavy  deficit. 

So  long  as  Japan  could  meet  the  deficiency  by 
foreign  loans,  the  problem  of  making  both  ends  meet 
was  capable  of  easy  solution.  But  the  most  opti- 
mistic financier  hesitates,  at  the  present  time,  to 
suggest  a loan  either  in  the  European  or  American 
markets.  For  months  a careful  campaign  has  been 
waged  to  enable  a new  loan  to  be  floated  in  Paris, 
but  so  far  without  success.  The  Manchurian  Rail- 
way issue  was  an  open  failure,  although  only  half 
of  the  money  really  needed  was  asked  for.  The 
Japanese  Finance  Commissioners  who  were  in  Europe 

313 


KOREA 


last  summer  returned  home  disappointed.  “ You  can 
rest  assured,”  one  of  them  was  told  by  a leading 
financial  authority,  “that  Europe  has  not  another 
sovereign  to  lend  Japan  for  increased  armaments.” 

The  monetary  difficulties  have  been  increased  by 
the  disastrous  results  of  commercial  speculation  in 
the  summer  of  1907,  when  large  numbers  of  banks 
and  institutions  failed.  The  situation  is  such  to-day 
that  the  Government  must  decide  on  one  of  two 
alternatives.  It  must  either  reduce  expenditure, 
and  thus  limit  some  of  its  cherished  schemes,  or  it 
must  find  excuse  for  an  aggressive  campaign  against 
its  wealthy  neighbour,  China.  It  is  this  which  may 
explain  the  Japanese  breaches  of  the  Open  Door 
policy.  The  Government,  no  doubt,  feels  that  it 
cannot  afford  to  miss  anything  that  would  expand 
its  commerce  and  improve  its  national  income. 

The  financial  problem  has  led,  in  turn,  to  the 
labour  problem.  The  inevitable  result  of  high  taxa- 
tion has  been  to  raise  the  cost  of  living.  It  is  prob- 
ably an  understatement  that  the  cost  of  living  has 
doubled  in  Japan  in  a few  years. 

One  outcome  of  this  rise  in  the  cost  of  living 
has  been  a series  of  formidable  strikes,  particularly 
among  the  miners  — strikes  often  accompanied  by 
violence  and  loss  of  life.  In  April,  1907,  several 
hundred  miners  at  the  Horolai  coal-mine  attempted 
to  destroy  the  mine  buildings,  fought  the  police, 
wounding  five  of  them,  and  set  fire  to  the  mine 
offices  and  the  go-downs,  using  dynamite  to  destroy 
the  buildings. 


314 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 


At  the  Ashio  copper-mine  the  men  rose,  cut  down 
the  telegraph  lines,  extinguished  all  the  lights  in  the 
pits,  blew  up  the  watch-houses  with  dynamite,  and 
started  a general  riot.  A bomb  was  thrown  into  the 
watch-house  and  blew  it  to  atoms.  The  rioters  were 
thoroughly  organised,  and  had  supplies  of  kerosene 
and  explosives  for  their  work.  In  the  end  a heavy 
body  of  troops  and  over  300  police  had  to  come 
and  restore  order.  In  this  riot  no  less  than  830 
houses  were  burnt  and  a number  of  lives  were  lost. 
At  the  Besshi  copper-mines,  in  June,  there  were 
serious  disturbances  and  grave  fights,  involving  a 
direct  loss  of  $1,000,000.  OflSces  were  set  on  fire, 
and  damage  done  which  it  will  take  a year  to  repair. 
In  September  some  thousands  of  dyeing  operatives 
went  on  strike.  An  epidem’ic  of  strikes  ran  through 
many  industries. 

The  rapid  increase  in  wages  is  wounding  the  new 
Japanese  manufacturers  in  their  most  vital  point. 
An  attempt  was  recently  made  to  obtain  cheap 
labour  by  importing  a number  of  Chinese  coolies. 
The  Government  quickly  intervened,  and  had  the 
coolies  expelled,  to  the  accompaniment  of  consider- 
able indignity  and  suffering.  Japan  has  no  hesi- 
tation in  protecting  herself  from  cheaper  labour, 
whatever  she  may  say  about  America  having  similar 
protection  for  her  people. 

This  labour  question  raises  yet  another  issue. 
Japan’s  success  as  a manufacturing  nation  has  so 
far  been  largely  due  to  the  low  wages  of  her  toilers. 
The  cotton  mills,  with  an  unlimited  supply  of  women 

315 


KOREA 


workers  at  ten  cents  a day,  and  children  at  a few 
cents  a week,  the  factories  with  skilled  workmen 
earning  an  average  wage  of  sixty  sen  (30c.)  a day, 
are  able  to  turn  out  goods  very  cheaply.  The 
Japanese  working  man  is,  in  the  opinion  of  all  com- 
petent authorities,  not  nearly  so  capable  a handler 
of  machinery  as  is  the  European.  Generally  speak- 
ing, it  takes  two  Japanese  to  do  the  work  of  one 
European  where  much  machinery  is  used.  Japanese 
deftness  lies  largely  in  handicrafts. 

So  long  as  human  material  was  cheap  this  did  not 
much  matter.  But  now  we  have  labour  appreciat- 
ing all  the  time,  until  in  some  districts  known  to  me 
two  shillings  a day  has  to  be  paid.  Firms  that  land 
goods  at  Japanese  ports  are  already  becoming  loud 
in  their  complaints  of  the  cost  of  handling  freight. 

The  Japanese  manufacturer  thus  finds  his  labour 
bill  rising,  while  his  direct  taxation  is  double  or 
treble  what  it  once  was.  At  the  same  time  a new 
commercial  rival  is  arising.  The  factory  system  is 
being  introduced  into  parts  of  China,  especially 
around  the  Yangtze  Valley,  and  the  Chinese  are 
beginning  to  produce,  on  a considerable  scale,  cer- 
tain lines  of  goods  in  competition  with  Japan. 

In  China  labour  is  still  paid  a minimum  wage 
and  taxation  is  low.  The  Chinese  worker  is  at 
least  equal  to  the  Japanese.  \Miat  China  has  lacked 
up  to  now  has  been  Government  direction,  and  skilled 
Government  aid  in  finance,  in  securing  cheap  freight, 
and  in  finding  and  keeping  customers.  Dear  labour 
and  high  taxation  threaten  Japan  more  nearly  and 

316 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 


more  seriously  than  any  Armada  from  foreign 
lands. 

What  are  the  main  causes  of  these  crushing  national 
burdens.^  They  are,  without  doubt,  mainly  due  to 
the  great  amount  spent  on  the  army  and  the  navy 
and  on  commercial  subsidies.  A great  parade  was 
made  in  some  quarters,  at  the  beginning  of  1908, 
because  of  an  announcement  that  the  Japanese 
Government  had  resolved  to  modify  its  military  and 
naval  expenditures  for  the  coming  year.  The  com- 
mentators were  probably  not  aware  that  this  so- 
called  modification  was  merely  a slight  clipping  off 
in  a great  scheme  of  expansion.  Japan  still  spends 
twice  as  much  on  her  fighting  forces  as  five  years 
ago.  The  national  policy  since  the  conclusion  of  the 
treaty  of  Portsmouth  has  been,  as  it  was  previously, 
strongly  in  favour  of  the  rapid  and  considerable 
enlargement  of  both  the  fleet  and  the  army.  There 
is,  it  is  true,  a party,  both  in  the  Cabinet  and  out 
of  it,  that  would  keep  defence  expenditure  within 
bounds.  But  this  party  is  at  present  only  able  to 
exercise  a slightly  moderating  influence. 

A comparison  of  the  fighting  strength  of  the  nation 
immediately  before  the  war  and  to-day  will  best 
show  this.  At  the  end  of  1903  Japan  had  six  good 
battleships.  To-day  she  has  thirteen,  and  three 
more  are  being  built.  Of  these  thirteen  ships,  two 
— the  Satsuma  and  the  Aki  — are  of  the  Dread- 
nought class,  and  exceed  the  Dreadnought  in  displace- 
ment. The  three  now  building  will  far  surpass 
in  tonnage,  horse-power,  and  armaments  the  British 

317 


KOREA 


monsters,  the  Bellerophon,  Temeraire,  and  the  Superb. 
Here  is  an  excellent  comparison : — 


Bellerophon . 
Temeraire . . 
Superb 


Duplacement 

18,600 


DupUcement. 


Japanese  battleships  22,000 


I.HJ. 

23,600 

LH.P. 

26,500 


Armuoentt. 

I 10  12",  and  27 
1 small  Q.F. 

ArmAinenU. 

12  12", 

10  8",  and 
12  4.7  Q.F. 


Before  the  war  Japan  had  six  eflScient  armoured 
cruisers.  To-day  she  has  twelve,  besides  four  now 
being  built,  of  which  one  is  near  completion.  Some 
of  these  new  armoured  cruisers  are  battleships  in  all 
but  name.  As  against  fourteen  protected  cruisers 
before  the  war,  there  are  now  eighteen.  Her  nine- 
teen destroyers  have  risen  to  fifty -four,  and  her  forty- 
five  torpedo-boats  to  eighty-five.  In  addition,  she 
has  accumulated  a considerable  fleet  of  submarines. 
There  are  seven  in  commission  and  six  now  under 
construction.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the 
Japanese  Navy  is  to-day  nearly  twice  as  eflScient  and 
powerful  as  it  was  three  months  before  the  outbreak 
of  the  Russian  War. 

The  increase  in  the  army  has  been  also  consider- 
able. At  the  close  of  the  Russian  campaign  the 
Minister  for  War,  General  Terauchi,  wanted  to 
resign,  and  was  only  induced  to  continue  in  oflSce  by 
a promise  that  his  plans  for  the  expansion  of  the 
army  would  be  considered  as  favorably  as  possible. 
The  war  party  asked  that  the  army  should  be  in- 

318 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 


creased  from  thirteen  to  twenty-five  divisions.  This 
was  afterwards  reduced  by  the  Minister  to  twenty- 
one  divisions.  The  Finance  Department  declared 
that  such  a programme  was  impossible,  for  the 
country  could  not  bear  the  burden.  As  a com- 
promise, it  was  decided  early  last  year  to  enlarge 
the  army  to  seventeen  divisions,  with  two  further 
divisions  in  Korea  and  Manchuria.  Other  increases 
took  place,  which  still  further  added  to  the  military 
strength.  Thus  the  time  for  infantry  training  was 
reduced  from  three  years  to  two.  As  need  hardly 
be  pointed  out,  this  will  give  the  infantry  a reserve, 
in  a few  years,  50  per  cent,  greater  than  before.  A 
thousand  men  were  added  to  each  division. 

The  Japanese  military  authorities  also  seriously 
set  themselves  to  eradicate  the  various  weaknesses 
revealed  in  their  organisation  during  the  Russian 
War.  In  England  a number  of  open  scandals  pre- 
ceded the  very  effective  changes  which  have  been 
made  in  its  land  forces  since  the  Peace  of  Vereeni- 
ging.  Japan  managed  better.  Scandals  were  sup- 
pressed, and  all  dirty  linen  was  washed  in  private, 
but  a most  careful  and  relentless  inquiry  was  insti- 
tuted behind  closed  doors. 

Cavalry  had  been  a conspicuously  weak  arm  of 
the  service  during  the  war.  Experts  were  called 
in  from  Austria  and  other  countries,  fresh  breeding 
stock  was  introduced,  and  the  authorities  will  accom- 
plish the  seemingly  impossible  task  of  making  real 
horse-masters  of  some  of  their  countrymen.  The 
Japanese  field  artillery  was  hopelessly  out-classed  by 

319 


KOREA 


the  Russian.  If  Japan  were  fighting  to-day  much 
of  her  field  artillery  would  be  found  equal  to  that 
of  any  other  Power.  Vast  sums  have  been  spent 
to  create  steel  foundries  in  Japan,  in  order  that  the 
country  may  be  able  to  supply  within  its  own  borders 
the  steel  used  for  war  material.  This  policy  has 
since  been  carried  a step  further,  and  late  last  year 
the  Japanese  finally  concluded  an  agreement  with 
Messrs.  Armstrong,  and  Vickers  and  Maxim  by  which 
Armstrong,  Vickers,  and  the  Japanese  are  to  build, 
in  co-partnership,  works  in  Japan  itself.  These 
works  will  have  the  benefit  of  the  Armstrong  and 
Vickers  secrets  and  designs,  and  it  is  expected  that 
a monster  arsenal  will  be  created  at  the  Hokaido, 
doing  for  Asia  what  Krupp,  Armstrong,  Vickers, 
and  Creusot  have  accomplished  for  Europe. 

Steps  have  been  taken  to  increase  the  esprit  and 
the  military  pride  of  the  soldiery.  Soon  after  the 
war  more  ornamental  dressings  were  given  to  mili- 
tary uniforms,  and  the  Japanese  soldier  now,  in 
his  red  and  gold-trimmed  dress,  looks  very  different 
from  the  shapeless  and  slouching  yokel  who  formerly 
excited  the  derision  of  superficial  European  onlookers. 
There  is  nothing  extraordinary  in  this.  Japan  is 
only  following  the  line  taken  by  many  great  con- 
quering nations  before,  and  those  who  would  follow 
the  reasons  for  her  action  need  but  study  Napoleonic 
history.  Her  army  and  navy  are  at  once  her  strength 
and  danger.  Her  soldiers,  strong,  successful,  and 
determined,  look  with  some  scorn  on  the  quiet  and 
somewhat  sober  statesmen  who  keep  them  in  check. 

320 


A GLANCE  AT  THE  FUTURE 


They  are  working  out,  under  new  conditions,  the 
same  conclusions  that  have  always  made  the  Samurai 
the  strength  of,  and  potentially  the  most  dangerous 
class  in,  Japan. 

Happily  for  the  world,  while  the  military  clans  are 
strong,  they  are  not  yet  omnipotent.  There  is  a 
school  of  statesmen,  not  perhaps  a growing  school, 
that  sees  the  real  hope  of  Japan’s  future  in  peaceful 
expansion.  A generation  ago,  Okubo,  leader  of  those 
who  overthrew  the  Shogunate,  died  under  the  hands 
of  an  assassin  for  loyalty  to  his  principles.  Twelve 
years  ago  Ito  kept  his  countrymen  in  check  when 
they  were  furious  to  avenge  the  insults  that  were 
put  upon  them  by  Russia.  The  school  of  Okubo 
and  Ito  is  not  yet  dead.  Ito,  it  is  true,  is  laughed  at 
by  many  of  the  younger  men,  who  declare  that  while 
his  ways  were  good  enough  for  their  fathers,  they 
have  entered  into  a wider  inheritance,  and  will  prove 
themselves  worthy  of  it.  The  future  of  Japan,  the 
future  of  the  East,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  future 
of  the  world,  lies  in  the  answer  to  the  question 
whether  the  militarists  or  the  party  of  peaceful 
expansion  gain  the  upper  hand  in  the  immediate 
future.  If  the  one,  then  we  shall  have  harsher  rule 
in  Korea,  steadily  increasing  aggression  in  Manchuria, 
growing  interference  with  China,  and,  in  the  end,  a 
Titanic  conflict,  the  end  of  which  none  can  see. 
Under  the  others  Japan  will  enter  into  an  inheri- 
tance wider,  more  glorious,  and  more  assured  than 
any  Asiatic  power  has  attained  for  many  centuries. 
Given  peace  and  fair  dealing,  her  commerce  cannot 

321 


KOREA 


fail  to  expand  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Once  her 
merchants  have  learnt  to  purge  themselves  of  their 
inherited  trickery,  once  they  have  discovered  that 
bogus  trade-marks,  poor  substitutes,  and  smartness 
do  not  build  up  permanent  connections,  their  future 
is  certain.  Japan  has  it  in  her  yet  to  be,  not  the 
Mistress  of  the  East,  reigning,  sword  in  hand,  over 
subject  races  — for  that  she  can  never  permanently 
be  — but  the  bringer  of  peace  to,  and  the  teacher  of, 
the  East.  Will  she  choose  the  nobler  end? 


322 


INDEX 


Administration,  the  Japanese,  in 
Korea,  233. 

Agricultural  experiment  stations,  256. 
Agriculture,  55,  255,  287. 

Alceste  and  Lyra,  voyage  of,  3. 

Allen,  Dr.,  127. 

Alphabet,  the  Korean,  48. 

American  mining  interests,  254. 
American  Missions,  118. 

Animals,  cruelty  to,  125. 

Annexation  by  Japan,  xii-xv. 

Army,  disbanding  of  the,  171. 

Babies  in  Korea,  182. 

Baggage  transportation,  128. 

Banks,  26. 

Barley  culture,  63. 

Barrack  life,  199. 

Bean  culture,  61. 

Bear  and  deer  hunting,  78. 

Beet  cultivation,  288. 

Blair,  Major,  R.  E.,  190. 

Books  in  Korea,  49. 

Boys  in  monasteries,  94. 

Buddhism,  88;  the  power  cf,  96. 
Buddhist  retreats,  90. 

Bureau  of  Forestry,  286. 

Cabinet,  the  new,  239. 

Chang-an,  Monastery  of,  83. 
Characteristics  of  the  Koreans,  178. 
Chemulpo,  history  of,  18. 

Children,  rights  of,  53. 

China,  encroachments  by,  157. 


Chinese  domination  of  Korea,  12. 
Chino- Japanese  War,  138,  162. 
Christianity  in  Korea,  89. 
Chung-deung-sa,  141. 

Church  of  England  Missions,  117. 
Church  revenues,  88. 

Claims,  settlement  of,  232. 
Coal-mining,  282. 

Confucianism,  94. 

Consuls,  powers  of  Japanese,  248. 
Control  of  Korea  by  Japan,  220. 
Convention,  the,  of  1905,  224. 
Cooking  in  Korea,  64. 

Corfe,  Bishop,  117. 

Costume,  30,  176.  See  Dress. 

Cotton  cultivation,  290. 

Courtesans,  40. 

Crime  in  Korea,  47.  See  Prisons, 
Police. 

Criminals  in  Korea,  185. 

Cruelty  to  animals,  125. 

Customs  duties  removed,  255. 

Dancing  girls,  35. 

Dancing  in  Korea,  43. 

Death  penalty,  the,  247. 

Deer  hunting,  78. 

Diamond  Monasteries,  the,  86. 
Diamond  Mountains,  the,  99. 
Disbanding  of  the  Army,  171. 
Diseases  in  Korea,  112. 

Divorce  in  Korea,  52. 

Dress  of  the  Koreans,  30.  See  Cos- 
tume. 

Drought  and  starvation,  108. 


INDEX 


Eably  voyages,  6. 

Education  in  Korea,  26,  47,  205. 
Education  of  to-day,  302. 

Educational  Department,  the  new, 
279. 

Entertaining  in  Korea,  202. 

European  invasions,  156. 

Experiment  stations,  256. 

Exports  and  imports,  256,  258. 
Exposition,  the  Seoul,  1907,  293. 

Famine  in  Korea,  108. 

Farmers,  55. 

Farming,  57. 

Farms  and  farmhouses,  69. 

Fauna  and  flora,  5,  66. 

Finances,  222. 

Financial  reorganisation  by  Japan, 
238. 

Fishing  trade,  the,  105. 

Fishing  villages,  104. 

Flora  and  fauna,  5,  66. 

Food  of  the  Koreans,  64. 

Foreign  language  schools,  307. 
Foreign  Powers,  treaties  with,  250. 
Foreign  trade  with  Korea,  257. 
Forestry,  282,  285;  Bureau  of,  286. 
Functions  of  new  Ministers,  239. 

Games  in  Korea,  49. 

Gautama  Buddha,  87. 

German  gold  concessions,  75. 

Girls’  schools  in  Korea,  208. 

Oisaing,  40. 

Gold  concessions,  75. 

Gold-mining,  74. 

Government,  the  new,  226. 

Gubbins,  Mr.,  134. 

Han  River,  the,  134. 

Harbour  works  and  extension,  266. 
“ Hermit  Kingdom,”  the,  3,  156. 
Hideyoshi’s  invasion  of  Korea,  138, 
154. 


High  schools,  306. 

Highways,  269. 

History,  3. 

Horse-breeding,  140. 

Hospitals,  296. 

Hulbert,  Professor  H.  B.,  on  Korean 
philology,  47. 

Hunting  in  Korea,  73. 

Imports  and  exports,  256,  258. 
Industrial  encouragement,  285. 
Industrial  Exhibition,  the,  1907,  293. 
Industrial  schools,  291. 

Independence  of  Korea,  219. 
Industries,  55. 

Inheritance,  laws  of,  53. 

Inns  in  Korea,  131. 

Insect  pests,  106,  132. 

Interpreters  in  Korea,  181. 

Invasions  of  Korea,  153. 

Japan,  over-popidation  of,  310. 

Japan  and  Russia  in  Korea,  168. 
Japan  Chinese  War,  162. 

Japanese  administration,  233. 
Japanese  annexation,  xii. 

Japanese  Consuls,  power  of,  248. 
Japanese  influence,  14. 

Japanese  invasions,  158. 

Japanese  relations,  217. 

Judiciary,  the  new,  243. 

Kang-sonq,  139. 

Kang-wha,  137. 

Korea  an  outlet  for  Japanese  surplus 
population,  310. 

Korean  independence,  219. 

Kublai  Khan,  153. 

Land  and  Folk,  15. 

Land  of  the  Morning  Radiance,  the, 
65. 

Language,  48. 

Language  teaching,  304. 


324 


INDEX 


Law  reform,  243. 

Laws  of  inheritance,  63. 

Lay,  Mr.,  British  Consul-General, 
191. 

Legends  of  Buddha,  91. 

Life  in  a monastery,  142. 

Life  in  barracks,  199. 

Light-house  Bureau,  265. 

Literature  of  Korea,  49. 

Live  stock  raising,  289. 

Lyra,  voyage  of  the,  3. 

McKenzie,  F.  A.,  on  the  future  of 
Korea,  310. 

Malaria,  112. 

Manners,  30. 

Manufactures,  261. 

Maritime  undertakings,  265. 

Mass,  a nocturnal,  145. 

Medical  schools,  297. 

Men,  dress  of,  31.  See  Costume. 
Military,  the  Korean,  199. 

Millet  growing, '^63. 

Mines,  wealth  of,  253. 

Mining  developments,  260. 

Mining  in  Korea,  73. 

Mining  interests,  254. 

Mining  rights,  leases  of,  281. 
Missionaries,  control  of,  249. 
Missionary  Question,  the,  114. 
Missions,  regulation  of,  307. 

Missions  in  Korea,  89;  American,  118; 

Church  of  England,  117. 

Model  farms,  287. 

Monasteries,  the  Diamond,  86. 
Monastery,  life  in  a,  142. 

Monks  and  Monasteries,  83. 

Morals,  30. 

Morse,  Jas.  R.,  concessions  to,  274. 
Motherhood,  35. 

Mountain  scenery,  70. 

Mountains,  the  Diamond,  99. 

Music  in  Korea,  50. 


Navigation,  4. 

Ni  Dynasty,  the,  157. 

Normal  schools,  305. 

Nuns  and  nunneries,  99. 

Oat  culture,  63. 

Occupation  of  women,  35. 

“Open  door,”  the,  in  Korea,  174. 
Oppert,  and  the  buried  treasure,  9. 
Otori’s  visit  to  Seoul,  160. 

Paddy  fields,  69. 

Patent  regulations,  263. 

Penal  Code,  reform  of,  251. 

Peony  Mount,  capture  of,  187. 
Ping-yang,  capture  of,  163;  features 
of,  182. 

“ Placer”  mining,  76. 

Plague  Preventive  Staff,  the,  295. 
Police,  222. 

Port  Arthur,  attack  on,  162;  fall  of, 
164. 

Postal  administration,  271. 

Poultry  breeding,  289. 

Printing  Bureau,  the,  280. 

Prisons  and  prisoners,  184.  See  also 
Crime. 

Progress  and  Reforms,  215. 
Proselytising  in  Korea,  121. 
Providence,  the  British  ship,  8. 

Public  Works,  278. 

Punishments,  51. 

Pu-ti-chong  Pass,  the,  90. 

Quelpart,  the  Isle  of,  9. 

Railroads  in  Korea,  20,  180,  269. 
Reforms  and  Progress,  215. 

Religious  ceremonies,  93. 

Religious  sculpture,  92. 
Residency-General,  powers  of,  225. 
Resident-General  appointed,  217. 

Rice  cultivation,  60,  287. 

Roman  Catholicism,  114. 


INDEX 


Russia  and  Japan  in  Korea,  169. 
Russian  advances,  166. 
Russo-Japanese  War,  170. 

Sammons,  T.,  on  trade  conditions  to- 
day, 263. 

Sanitation,  294. 

Scenery  in  Korea,  65. 

School  text-books,  304. 

Schools,  Industrial,  291;  Korean,  205, 
208. 

Sculpture,  religious,  92. 

Seclusion  of  women,  33. 

Seoul,  described,  23. 

Seoul  Exposition,  the,  293. 

Sericulture,  288. 

Servant  and  master,  129. 

Shamanism,  94. 

Shin-ki-sa,  97. 

Silk  industry,  the,  288. 

Slavery  in  Korea,  38. 

Sondol-mok,  139. 

Sorghum  culture,  63. 

Sorrows  of  a Coveted  Kingdom,  153. 
Sparwekr,  the  Dutch  frigate,  4. 
Starvation  and  drought,  108. 

State  education,  208. 

Stone-quarrying,  140. 

Sui>erstition  in  Korea,  10. 
Superstitions  about  famine.  111. 

Telegraphs,  269. 

Telephones,  269. 

Terauchi,  Viscount,  on  reforms  and 
progress,  216. 


Text-books  in  schools,  304. 

Theatricals  in  Korea,  196. 

“Three  trial  system,”  the,  246. 
Tientsin  Convention,  the,  159. 

Tiger  himting,  80. 

Timber  monopolies,  168. 

Tong-haks,  the,  159. 

Tong-Ko-Kai,  71. 

Trade,  xiii;  conditions,  253;  with  the 
U.  S.  A.,  259. 

Trade-mark  regulations,  263. 
“Tragedy  of  Korea,  The,”  by  F.  A. 
McKenzie,  310. 

Transportation  of  baggage,  128. 
Travel  in  Korea,  83,  122. 

Treaties  with  foreign  Powers,  250. 
Trollope,  Rev.  M.  Napier,  141. 
Tuberculosis,  113. 

United  States,  trade  with,  259. 

Water  supply,  the,  298. 

Water  works,  294,  298. 

Wei-hai-wei,  162. 

Western  influence,  17. 

White  Buddha,  the,  195. 

W’omen,  dress  of,  30;  education  of,  49; 

seclusion  of,  33. 

Women’s  work  in  Korea,  36. 

Yalu  River,  the,  137. 

Y.M.C.A.,  the,  in  Korea,  192,  308. 
Yu-chom,  Monastery  of,  89. 


326 


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